“Landscape and
Imagination, Towards a new baseline for education in a changing world. Paysage et Invention. Evolution des enseignements dans un
monde en transition.»
“ A new
alliance, environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape”.
UNISCAPE, 2013. Bandecchi&Vivaldi, Florence
ISBN 978-88-8341-548-7
Landscape & Imagination
“ A new alliance,
environnemental tourisme and cultural landscape ”
António dos Santos
Queirós
Philosophy Center. Lisbon University
Centro de Filosofia. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa.
Alameda da
Universidade
1600-214 Lisboa
Portugal
1600-214 Lisboa
Portugal
Abstract
Concepts and categories:
The concept of paradigm and the
rising of a new landscape paradigm. Two methodological roads: negative
heuristics and positive heuristics.
A universal and globalised
anthropocentric action transformed the wild landscape in cultural landscape. Écoumène and trajection.
Peasant ethics: Enlarging
Land Community concept and Animal Ethics.
The UN Stockholm Conference
principles and the environmental consciousness.
Extending the concept of landscape
in several dimensions
The
environmental reason. Ethics and Morality. The
philosophical approach of the Environmental Philosophy. The two
principles, the critique of anthropocentrism, and the critique of
ethnocentrism, create a new ethical theory.
From the conservationist Nature paradigm to the
concepts of environment and sustainable development.
Tourism
economy: the changing of the paradigm. Landscape Ecology and Metaphysics of
landscape. Parallel –Aesthetic
Categories. Mass tourism versus ecotourism, the controversy. A new educated and
cultured middle. A new alliance, environnemental
tourisme and cultural landscape.
Keywords: Paradigm.
Landscape. Environmental. Ethics. Environmental reason. Ecology. Metaphysics.
1 Introduction
. The general definition of paradigm comprises "a disciplinary
matrix", a constellation of beliefs, values and techniques shared by a
Community.
The existence of an
environmental heritage recognized by the contribution of the different sciences
leads us to the concept of “landscape ecology” and, simultaneously, the
recognition of another intangible heritage translates into “metaphysics of
landscape”, two concepts that are extremely important to define the new tourism
paradigm, the Environmental Tourism: Nature Tourism and Cultural Tourism, with
Rural Tourism, shaped in the cultural landscape.
In
this paper we will use the two methodological, a negative heuristics, and a
positive heuristic, revisiting those
concepts within the framework of sustainable development and Environmental
Philosophy is the itinerary of our exposition.
2 The
environmental reason
If
the object of science is to explain the world machinery, then scientific laws
are amoral, and the answer to the categorical imperative of "how to live
in the world” belongs to the domain of philosophy and of ethics. It’s in this
sense that the environmental ethics questions the value of science and the value
of social development, not only in an anthropocentric dimension but also
according to and beyond modern science: Life before Man and Earth before Life.
As
in the philosophy of Spinoza, which opened the “universe of reason”, the
fundamental pushes for environmental philosophy reflect the ethical and moral
issues.
2.1
Ethics and Morality. The philosophical approach
We return to the main questions that Bento de
Spinoza's work placed on the advent of our modernity: how to think about the
rational explanation of the existence of man and the universe, how to adapt the
philosophical thinking to the raison d' être of everything that exists
and how to transform the spiritual life in full understanding and peaceful
enjoyment of life itself to the limit?
The struggle to distinguish ethics from morality
such as, normative ethics (what we ought to do) from philosophical or
meta-ethics (what is the nature of good), cannot be exceptionally simple. If
normative ethics are something the general public may call "ethics"
and meta-ethics may be what the common sense notion of morality is.....this
happens in the framework of the anthropocentrism!
Morality is a cultural expression determined by
social domination and historical context, which gives it a sectary character.
We need a moral theory that can be universal, timeless and that is able to
guide the individual conduct, science and political ideologies, without
considering the man in the zenith of Life.
However, in the last century, moral reflection has
turned itself to a new object: the environment
The focal point in the development of the environmental consciousness in
the modern world, there was the UN environmental conferences.
Some principles emerged from the first conference, held in Stockholm in
1972: the principle of a “common house” "… man has two homelands, his own
and planet Earth"; the principle of a planetary Community and solidarity,
founders of a new international order (ethics) and the principle of defending
life on the planet and its biodiversity. (UNCHE 1972).
Those principles build a first line with the cultural and political
perspective of ethnocentrism.
The critical perspective of environment philosophy toward the
ethnocentrism claims the following: "Ethnocentrism is an emotionally
conditioned approach that considers and judges other societies by their own
culture’s criteria. It’s easy to see that this attitude leads to contempt and
hate of all ways of life that are different from that of the observer. " (Dias, 1961)
The critique of ethnocentrism not only justifies the respect for all
national cultures and all forms of classical and popular cultural expression,
but also rejects any notion of superiority from a certain model of society,
race or ethnicity. In this sense, it expands the concept of products of cultural
goods far beyond the great museums, master oeuvres, classic heritage… including
cultural landscape.
Biocentrism
(Earth first!, Greenpeace, Wilderness Society, ...) assigns an intrinsic value
to any living entity and Aldo Leopold’s Ecocentrism focuses on our duty towards
the biotic community, which we are part of
(Larrère, 2007). This isn’t
about applying pre-existing moral theories to new objects, such as nature.
Nature shall be included in our field of moral reflection, our duties, which
were previously limited to human beings, and will now be extended to other
natural beings - the concept of an enlarged community of natural beings. This
is the perspective of the critique to the anthropocentrism.
The
"environmentalist reason" formulates a new categorical imperative for
human action, beyond the Kant maximum of forming individual ethics of acts with
the principle of a universal law, a new ethical framework, which stems from the
need to configure the human conduct within the limits that safeguard the continuity
of life and its diversity (Hans Jonas).
However scientific discoveries only allow us to be sure that the
balance of ecosystems favourable to life depends on a multitude of physical,
biological and geological factors and recognize that the higher the position
occupied by organisms in the food chain, the more vulnerable they will be, as
well as some species, whose destruction would dramatically affect the entire
system.
What today is dramatic, is
the rhythm at which biodiversity is being lost, the destruction of natural
resources, energy and the multiplication of polluting effects that reach not
only the whole lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the atmosphere and
the biosphere, but also, with unpredictable consequences, the fundamental genetic
material, the DNA, which conserves and reproduces the codes of life.
If we consider the
emergence of our ancestors of the human species from 4 to 5 million years ago,
inside the framework of the biological time, which is immense, nothing can
assure that, as happened to the dinosaurs in the past (sixty-five million years
ago), the kingdom of mammals won't come to an end one day and other forms of
more adapted life will continue to perpetuate the music of life in the sidereal
spaces.
However, imagine the extinction
of Homo sapiens sapiens and species associated with our evolution, a
world of plants, microbes and insects, would unlikely give rise again to the
human species or even to mammals.
In this perspective, nobody
can imagine today what will be the link in the chain of life where the
evolutionary leap will occur, as nobody dreamt before that the grandfather of
our human condition was an insignificant rodent that survived the widespread
extinction of dominant species at the end of the Mesozoic Era (67 million years
ago). But, at the same time, the preservation of the human being returns to the
centre of environmental ethics, in a new ethical perspective, without unlimited
domain and privileges against “the other”
nature (critique of anthropocentrism)..
To be coherent with this
environmental ethical perspective, we must consider that the multiple links
between all forms of life (and even those within the non-biotic environment),
require, in addition to the duty of preserving our species, a duty of conserving
the diversity of beings and their environmental niches, since everything
depends on their dynamic equilibrium, as in the Aldo Leopold (1947) biotic
pyramid.
3. From the conservationist Nature paradigm to
the concepts of environment and sustainable development
The
acknowledgment of the economic value of using biodiversity is still a way to
refuse the autonomous land ethic values. “The land-relation is still strictly
economic, entailing privileges but not obligations. “(Leopold, 1947)
This
usually leads to confining nature conservation to parks and reserves, to the
species potentially useful to humans and to the action of the State, giving
complete freedom to private enterprise. This comes from the scientifically
false premise that the elements with economic value of the biotope can exist in
nature without the presence of other elements.
This
is the scientific base of ecological consciousness - to recognize the “duties
towards nature”.
“A land ethic then reflects the existence of an ecological conscience,
and this in turn reflects a conviction of individual responsibility for the
health of the land. Health is the capacity of the land for self-renewal.
Conservation is our effort to understand and preserve the capacity.” (Leopold,
1947: 258).
3.1 Tourism economy:
the changing of the paradigm
Up to what point can the idea of
landscape serve the intentions of sustainable development, and in what forms?
What might be the conditions for a possible encounter between the concepts of
landscape and sustainable development that neither uses nor reduces one at the
expense of the other or vice-versa?
This new vision
of the landscape, multi and interdisciplinary, which is at the same time an
instrument operating its hermeneutics and a category in the field of Environmental
Philosophy, is named: “Landscape ecology (humanized). In our definition it
represents a structural and systemic view that encompasses the large natural
landscape, characterized and differentiated not only by the various
fields of science (environmental sciences and exact sciences), but also because
it was created with the help of Man in his daily effort as a farmer, a shepherd
and a landscape architect.” (Queirós, 2003)
The
Natural history, served by the Earth Sciences, Geology and Geomorphology in particular,
reveals the diversity of geological heritage and its natural monuments.
Life
sciences, especially biology and botany, teach us the size and value of
biodiversity, and also the value of new biotopes created by the humanization of
the landscape.
Social
History in its archaeological and artistic valences, and ethnography, allow us
to take advantage of the built heritage, works of art and literature, as well
as ethnographic objects.
And
when we discuss these, we can’t forget their immaterial size.
Metaphysics
of landscape represents the domain of aesthetic emotions and feelings and their
cultural representations.
Ecotourism is about conserving the “natural areas”,
which improve the well-being of the locals. According to this perspective, we
continue following the field of the anthropocentrism. But, what is the
definition of “natural areas?” When every landscape is as cultural landscape!?
The
concept of “tourist industry” has led to search for local resources -
biological and geological, livestock and forestry, etc. as their basic
material. In fact the first are used and processed by other industries, and in
many cases require its conservation. And as for the second, its consumption is
shared between residents and travellers.
What
constitutes a tourist resource is a humanized cultural landscape. Reading and
interpretation of the cultural landscape is the basis for the creation of the
tourist product and its first metamorphosis of value. It’s the ecology of the
landscape (material heritage) and its metaphysics (immaterial heritage), which
constitute the essence of tourist resource, but only when their interpretation
and reading gives it a new increase in cultural and economic value.
The
landscape is not an open book, intelligible empirically. The transformation
into a tourist product goes through its readability, which gives it a used
value; it’s a metamorphosis that generates economy value, and it’s also a
process of cultural literacy, mediated by the construction of a language for
tourist communication; the result of this process changes the shape and the
essence of traditional concepts of resources and tourist products.
3.1.1 Parallel –Aesthetic
Categories
We can reference in the landscape a set of
categories that we call “parallel-aesthetics”, carrying an intrinsic moral
value and touristic attraction capacity: "the unique", setting this
concept as susceptible to express the landscape attributes of an uncommon
Place. "The single” defining the own identity of a common landscape
object. "The authentic” attribute applicable to the conservation of
objects and original landscape contexts. "The genuine and rare",
objects and Places of Humanized landscape, that in its process of evolution
tend to the disappearance or corruption…
And differentiate them from “Systemic
Parallel-Aesthetics Categories”.
The discontinuity of forest stands and the
sustainability of agro-forestry “Mosaic” are supported by mountain terraces,
with an amazing hydrological systematization: erosion control, drainage and
reduced dispersion of full tips. Here we can find the use of the traditional
culture and the simplified use of the land: the polyculture and permanent
pasture, terraces with trench irrigation and drainage ditches, the walls
supporting the land, winning against the slopes. Also, this is helped by the
use of the sheep’s herding and the use of manure from their beds to fertilize
the fields
“Prados de
lima”, the drought irrigation system in the winter, with pressure refills
of aquifers and summer irrigation.
"The Bocage
landscape ", concept shaped from the French Bois, a continuous hedge. With woods at the top of the slope, live
fences and lines of trees linking plaids and armed pasture wisely under the
slope lines, without supporting walls.
"The Oak and the river forest", that preserving
the traditional agriculture, it is a privileged place to avifauna observation.
"The Water Gardens", landscape places
covering rivers and streams beds.
"Moss-
Gardens": micro-flora and micro-fauna.
....
The landscape has become the sediment of life and
death of all beings, from the non biotic and biotic community, crossing their
cycle of birth and death recycle and reutilize.
3.1.2
Mass tourism versus ecotourism, the controversy
The
debate among ecotourism and its critics (Butcher, 2011), has initially been
focused on opposing mass tourism to ecotourism, identifying a small niche of
customers, with limited financial size and market needs. Another argument, in
moral and politic dimensions, is the choice of local people not for the artisan and natural side, but to choose freely
new productive technologies, infrastructures, jobs and commodities…
The
democratization and socialization of education and culture, as well as the
evolution of big markets around the world solved some of the opposing issues:
Cultural Tourism has become a mass tourism.
3.1.3
A new educated and cultured middle class that is changing social taste
The
weight of this middle class and its instruction and cultural level, in parallel
with the emancipation of the working woman, a contemporary youth increasingly
educated and the anticipation of an active retirement in segments of the middle
class, generated a change in the social weight of this class and in the
categories of "taste" and travelling “motivation”.
The
modern social taste of the middle class includes a new global concept about Art
and Aesthetics. New moral and ethic values face nature, heritage, environment
and landscape, by influence of the Environmental Philosophy in every scientific
domain and development process.
3.1.4 A new alliance, environnemental tourisme
and cultural landscape
The
growth of competitiveness in the tourism economy will be sought particularly
through the ability to integrate Circuits and Routes in all patrimonies, which
gradually will link the current urban attraction poles to dynamic regional
visits, inter-regional and even cross-border. With these Routes and Circuits we
can promote the upgrading of the economical status of excursionist to the
status of tourist, increasing the time spent in certain places and the desire
or need to return to them. This will help surpass the seasonality and promote a
quality consumption, which will increase productivity.
The
Routes and Circuits will be integrated in their destinations. These
destinations will generate the main profit, but they will not be the structures
that organize these Routes and Circuits (the museums, monuments and parks) to
collect the greatest profit; the profit from tourism will come from the
aforementioned external Value Chains (Accommodation for visitors, restaurants,
transports and so one). The misunderstanding of this economic paradox is the
cause of the historical conflict between tourism and development, but is also
at the same time the key to overcome it. This is important particularly in our time,
in which a new paradigm of tourism is emerging - environmental tourism, which means
cultural tourism, nature tourism, and rural tourism, with their specific
products and renewed environmental sustainability requirements, for all other
tourist products.
To achieve the “Good employ of Nature” we need to apply a new ethical perspective to the
economical and financial world, and to the political categories.
3.1.5 “Terroir” and cultural landscape
The expansion of the human
species by all regions of the globe and its adaptation to the diversity of
habitats in the modern age has spawned a new relationship between humanity and
nature: it ceased to exist as pure natural countryside and the whole landscape
has become what it is by direct or indirect influence of human activity,
producing either unspeakable destruction or new cultural landscapes. The moral
and ethical reflection emerges from those issues.
Nowadays,
ecology and landscape aesthetics depend even more from the labour of farmers
and peasants, if we aspire to a full conservation of the landscape ecology and
its aesthetic; with more and more people leaving the countryside, innumerable
biotopes, which are the result from the interaction of human action with the
original biodiversity, will be lost. With its ruin and emigration, the risk of
it disappearing from many cultural landscapes can become a reality.
Augustin Berque (1993), has
developed philosophical theories about European and Japanese human societies
and space/landscape/nature, and established a unique academic concept, Écoumène,
introducing a new concept called trajection, which means the
interactive relationship between culture and nature, the collective and the
individual, and the subjectivity and the objectivity in actual societies in
Europe and in Japan. The landscape concept, born in 4th century China and in
the centuries of the Western Renaissance, encompasses a collective sensitive
and symbolic cultural subjectivity from the higher classes, engaged in an
aesthetical contemplation and different from the perception of the peasants,
which occupy and transform the land as part of their daily struggle. (Filosofia da Paisagem, 2012).
But, when we discuss the cultural landscape concept, we can’t forget their
immaterial size, which can be found in the erudite and popular imagination and
in their creative expressions in literature, dance, philosophy, music...
A
moral vision about landscape is included.
3.1.6 Peasant ethics: Enlarging Land Community
concept and Animal Ethics
The Iberian peasant culture in the first half of XX
century, maintained in the relationships with the land, the animals, the
humanized landscape, customs and in magical and religious imagery, an age-old
ethics that the struggle for survival and the empirical knowledge of life shaped
contradictorily.
Ethical
dilemmas: The “fojos”, or wolf traps, dating back to prehistoric times, allowed
the systematic extermination of wolf packs, but the pregnant females were
banned to hunters; the large birds of prey, such as gryphon’s, true health
agents that cleaned the mountains of corpses and sick animals were respected,
but smaller ones such as buzzards, accused of preying on the chicken coops,
were exterminated in their nests.
The
rural community and the urban alienation: the proximity between
neighbors, as between the breeder and consumer of animals, when subsistence
economies resisted even the capitalist globalization market, led to the
permanence of social solidarity and links of affection with the animals, today
totally unheard of by city dwellers who barely know their condominium partners
and who consume the iconized flesh (hamburger, hot-dog etc.) from completely
unknown animals.
Moral
dualities, Celebration-Mourning-Sacred-Profane: Paradigms of those
lost (and contradictory) ties of affection are, for example, the social sharing
of the pain of death, or the joy of marriage with the funeral rituals and
memorial service, or the offering of sweetmeats to neighbors. It is the tears
of the woman who bred the pig when it is taken to be killed, even knowing that
this sacrifice is essential for the family livelihood and the handing over of
that task to an expert outside the family, called in to carry out the fatal
incision. It is the songs of encouragement to the oxen when tilling the ground
and the fresh grass cut daily for the farm animals… but also the use of the
whip and the goad only when there is no other means of driving the animal. The
processes of domestication led to an empirical animal ethic which modern
production disdains completely.
Practical
ethics, ethical precepts and moral action: the rule of feeding
first the domestic animals and then serving the supper to the family; the
practice of raising animals in large compounds, allowing them to use these
spaces according their needs and biological rhythms, of feeding, mating and
moving around; the duty to help in the birth of young animals and assist them
when travelling long distances; the care in renewing the straw in the animal’s
sleeping quarters regularly; the cleaning, care and affection, rendered to the
working animals every day; the preoccupation with the well-being of aged or
frail animals, which no longer earn their keep; the mercy killing of seriously
ill or wounded animals, in order to put an end to their suffering ...all concrete
examples, among many others, of these immanent ethics.
Affection
and community memory: in fact, it is not only strictly economic
reasons or functional pragmatism that explains the secular creation of these
practices. Animals have communication codes and affective responses that
interact with humane treatment. And it is this affective capital, entwined in
memories and attitudes of the collective consciousness of rural communities,
which has been handed down from generation to generation.
Ethical
transcendence: ethical transcendence of these facts is stamped on
the mind and it is not just to meet the religious imperative that the old enemy
takes off his hat at the passing of a funeral and the hardened peasant, on
burying his dog, is unable to hide the feelings of grief.
Comparative
ethics, amorality and indifference: the mechanization
of anonymous city life with its consumer practices and the massive urbanization
of rural areas has resulted not only in the decrease of the biogenetic heritage
of the open spaces but also in the decline of secular ethic heritage, favouring
amorality and indifference at this century’s end.
Arnold Berleant's (2004)
approach to environmental aesthetics considers the human being as an active
contributor in a context where it is a continuous participant, distancing
himself from the Kantian perspective of a contemplative subject and a
contemplative object. A person is the perceptual centre, both as an individual
and as a member of a socio-cultural group, of his or her life-world, whose
horizons are shaped by geographical and cultural factors.( Filosofia da Paisagem, 2012)
In their aesthetical
perspective, the concept of landscape can be reduced to a visual direction and
includes several dimensions: admiring the landscape embraces the tactile
appeal, the kinaesthetic pleasure, the natural songs, the taste... These rich
dimensions are forsaken when admiring the landscape and are relevant to
cultural tourism and nature tourism. “The concept of landscape has had to be
stretched in many directions: from an object to an area, from a visual
experience to a multi-sensory one, from natural scenery to the whole range of
human-made transformations of nature. This expansion of the idea of landscape
is further complicated by the fact that landscapes are never stationary but are
constantly in transition.” (Berleant, 2011)
Re-thinking landscape means
that every landscape is a human artefact: the historical human presence
brings value to the landscape, not only the positive categories of the
beauty experiences in nature but also the negative sublime, to recognize
“if such practices also offend our sensibility; that is, they have aesthetic as
well as moral consequences”. (Berleant, 2011).
It isn’t the end of nature
or the end of wilderness! The geodiversity and biodiversity of the land- the
cultural landscape - are dynamic and dialectic. The natural process of
recycling and metamorphosis remains universal in the urban and rural land.
But the knowledge of the
landscape humanization, from the perspective of the philosophy of nature and
the environment philosophy, would be incomplete without the use of another
category of elements, which we define as:
“Metaphysics of landscape.
It represents the domain of the "spirituality", "soul" of
things, the categories of aesthetic emotions and feelings, "beauty"
and "beautiful", the "sublime", "wonderful" and
"mysterious", “monumental”, "epic" and "tragic."
(Queirós, 2003). All this categories can be linked with wilderness but also
with the human labour in the land. Including the negative categories: the
disgusting, the ugly, the repulsive, the abhorrent...
We can talk about the
“irrationalism” of environmental ethics (Ferry, 1992), but in reality, we
should talk about an environmental reason.
4. New
kinds of governance that combine several ecosystem services
The
result of this process changes the shape and the essence of traditional
concepts of landscape as economic and cultural product resource (material and
immaterial), and puts the question of the ethics of duty to preserve the
cultural landscape, by its double economic value and aesthetic.
The
cultural landscape, built by the peasants, shepherds and foresters, give them,
beyond commodities, an additional aesthetic and cultural value as tourist
attraction.
But
also, cultural landscape combines several ecosystem services:
Sustainability of
agriculture, silviculture and pastoral mosaic - soil improvement, groundwater
recharge, renewable energy sources, carbon-sink
Public health and safety in
production / functional food (healthy)
Multifunctional rural
areas/ conservation and valorisation of intangible and tangible heritage of bio
and geodiversity.
The
cultural landscape needs measures and funds to avoid environmental risks such
as - soil erosion, desertification and drought, forest fires, water scarcity
resulting from climate change must be reinforced
Consequently, the new CAP must recognize the need to strengthen the
environmental and landscape issues by supporting the management of
"land". The CAP
should promote the competitiveness of agriculture in the context of ecological
transition of its economy and therefore allow recognizing the irreducible
diversity and intrinsic values of different cultural landscapes from the North
to the South of Europe.
5 Conclusions
The main terms, such Culture, Nature, Environment
and Landscape, as “milieu” and Heritage are far from being neutral scientific
objects. They are academic constructions which need to be understood as they
emerge across their historic contexts.
The
general definition of paradigm comprises "a disciplinary matrix", a
constellation of beliefs, values and techniques shared by a Community (Kuhn,
1962). The presence of some anomalies is not enough to abandon the previous
paradigm. This happens only when, in the context of the phenomenological study,
you can observe multiple, unexplained or unexpected events and when a rival
paradigm emerges. This doesn't happen suddenly.
In
this paper we use the two methodological routes identified by Lakatos (1970), a
negative heuristics, which indicates the search paths to avoid and a positive
heuristic, which leads us to develop the “not forged” scientific propositions,
those scientific propositions that can’t be corrupted. Revisiting
those concepts within the framework of sustainable development and
Environmental Philosophy it was the itinerary of our exposition
Re-thinking landscape means
that every landscape is a human artefact: the historical human presence
brings value to the landscape, not only the positive categories but also
the negative categories. It isn’t the end of nature or the end of wilderness! The complexity of the cultural landscape, the geodiversity and biodiversity of the land, their material and
immaterial heritage, including an ethical peasant, are dynamic and dialectic.
In the last century, moral reflection has
turned itself to a new object: the environment. Scientific laws are amoral and Morality, on the other hand, is a
cultural expression determined by social dominance and historical context, who
gives them a sectary character, and not a universal one. The two principles,
the critique of
anthropocentrism, and the critique of ethnocentrism, could create a new ethical
theory, with a universal value and practical content applicable to all the
social fields and the correspondent moral, political and legal rules, including
re-thinking the concept of sustainable development.
The critique of environmental
philosophy queries our civilization mode, in the perspective of environmental
reason. Each new fundamental scientific discovery postulates the construction
of a new environmental ethics, with practical moral value.
Scientific discoveries only
allow us to be sure that the extinction of Homo sapiens sapiens and
species associated with our evolution, a world of plants, microbes and insects,
would unlikely give rise again to the human species or even to mammals. So, the
preservation of the human being returns to the centre of environmental ethics and
in our time, ecology and landscape
aesthetics depend even more from the labour of farmers and peasants.
The existence of an
environmental heritage recognized by the contribution of the different sciences
leads us to the concept of “landscape ecology” and, simultaneously, the
recognition of another intangible heritage translates into “metaphysics of
landscape”, two concepts that are extremely important to define the new tourism
paradigm, the Environmental Tourism: Nature Tourism and Cultural Tourism, with
Rural Tourism, shaped in the cultural landscape.
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