A. dos Santos. (2016).
CULTURAL TOURISM AND THE NEW ECONOMY OF HERITAGE,
International Journal of Scientific Management and
Tourism, Vol.2, 1, pp 229-251
Full text (copy)
António dos Santos Queirós
Center of Philosophy of Lisbon University
Centro de Filosofia. Faculdade de Letras da
Universidade de Lisboa.
Alameda da Universidade
1600-214 Lisboa
Portugal
1600-214 Lisboa
Portugal
Abstract
In the context of the
economy of cultural tourism and the tourism of nature, we focused our analysis
in the process of value generation
and how capital gains are
produced , questioning their gestation and the way how they emerge in the value chains of tourist
activity, supporting that hermeneutic
reflection on three issues: The form and essence of tourist resource. Value
added and creation of commodities (products). The reproduction of capital
invested in tourism.
To attempted the concept
of their externalities, which is fundamental to understanding the specific
character of the tourism economy, productivity and competitiveness. On this
basis, conceptual and methodological, we have drawn up the Route and Tourist
Circuit concepts, based on a scientific methodology inter-and multidisciplinary,
to organize and guide the visit to tourism destinations, which allows to read, interpret and enjoy their cultural
landscapes.
Finally, we seek to
establish uniform and consistent conceptual criteria to identify and
distinguish the different typological categories of tourism, confronting them
with the matrix of TSA, in an international context where different paradigms
emerge, namely the rising of the cultural tourism and
tourism of nature (environmental tourism).
Keywords:
Value. Externalities. Aesthetic. Ethics. Landscape. Categories. Heritage
From the resource to the
product
The concept of tourist industry has led to search for
local resources - biological and geological, livestock and forestry, etc. as
their basic material. In fact the first are used and processed by other
industries, and in many cases require its conservation. And as for the second,
its consumption is shared between residents and travellers.
What constitutes a tourist resource is a humanized “cultural
landscape”. Reading and interpretation of the cultural landscape is the basis
for the creation of the tourist product and its first metamorphosis of value.
It’s the ecology of the landscape (material heritage)
and its metaphysics (immaterial heritage), which constitute the essence of
tourist resource, but only when their interpretation and reading gives it a new
increase in cultural and economic value.
The landscape is not an open book, intelligible
empirically. The transformation into a tourist product goes through its
readability, which gives it a used value; it’s a metamorphosis that generates
economy value, and it’s also a process of cultural literacy, mediated by the
construction of a language for tourist communication; the result of this
process changes the shape and the essence of traditional concepts of resources
and tourist products.
What are the skills to transform a potential touristic
resource into a product of Cultural tourism or tourism of nature or tourism in
rural space?
The Natural History, served by the Earth Sciences,
Geology and Geomorphology in particular, reveals the diversity of geological
heritage and its natural monuments.
Life sciences, especially biology and botany, teach us
the size and value of biodiversity, and also the value of new biotopes created
by the humanization of the landscape.
Social History in its archaeological and artistic
valences, and ethnography, allow us to take advantage of the built heritage,
works of art and literature, as well as ethnographic objects.
Sciences of Heritage and Museology build the organic
structures of the cultural tourism, Museums and Monuments. Cathedrals and churches,
chapels and sanctuaries, are too organic structures of the cultural tourism, a
branch of tourism of nature, religious tourism. Sciences of Architecture of Landscape
and Agrarian Sciences transform wilderness in cultural landscapes, they preserve
cultural landscape and wilderness creating Natural Parks and Reserves and their
Centres of Interpretation, which are the organic structures of the tourism of
nature. And we think that SPAs are also organic structures of the tourism of
nature, a branch of tourism of nature, health tourism. Agrarian Sciences and
Sciences of Heritage adapt farms and village residences, rural hotels, to accept tourists and are the organic
structures of tourism in rural space.
And when we discuss these, we can’t forget their
immaterial dimension, esthetical and ethical which can be found in the erudite
and popular imagination and in their creative expressions in literature, dance,
music, philosophy...
The expansion of the human species by all regions of
the globe and its adaptation to the diversity of habitats in the modern age has
spawned a new relationship between humanity and nature: it ceased to exist as
pure natural countryside and the whole landscape has become what it is by
direct or indirect influence of human activity, producing either unspeakable
destruction or new cultural landscapes, urban landscapes and rural landscapes.
Immaterial heritage
of landscape represents the domain of aesthetic emotions and feelings, ethical
principles and their cultural representations.
Landscape
Aesthetic Categories
Concerning the concept
of beautiful on the landscape, we
want to mean the vision of harmony of colors and shapes, the balance in the
diversity, the absence of visible assaults to their natural and cultural
heritage, the permanence of scents and perfumes, the movement of crops and
trees, therefore, values that arouse all senses and appeal to other moral
values.
About the sublime on the landscape, we understand
the association of the beautiful with a sense of respect and even a certain
fear, imposed by natural landscape framework, or predominantly natural, such as
the grandeur of a mountain covered with snow or the roominess of the landscape
that can be seen.
Fig. 1 The geodiversity and the revelation of the
sublime and mysterious: it was the passage of the glacier below the granitic
mass of Cântaro Magro (Potted Thin), that lifted them over the landscape and opened the glacial Valley of
Loriga. Portugal, Serra da Estrela ( Star Mountain). (PM)
Our definition of the wonderful on landscape, it is the
beautiful ascend to a superior exponent, with some, or all of the senses
stimulated by a higher emotion.
Fig. 2 The wonderful, geodiversity and the
revelation of the mysterious: monumental Valley of Manteigas (Butter’s Valley)
shaped like a U, for being of glacial origin. . Portugal, Serra da Estrela (
Star Mountain). (PM)
With the concept of the mysterious on the landscape, we wants to
represent the surprise and fascination, shapes, colors and particular
environments, we don't understand spontaneously.
Fig.3 The geodiversity and the History reveal the
sublime and mysterious. Fraga da Pena: “Castro” (village fortified) from the
Bronze age. Castle Koppie, Inselberg with orthogonal diaclases. Tor, granitic Tower, with the blocks in situ.
Situated in the Serra da Estrela (Star Mountain), in Queiriz, Fornos de
Algodres.(PM)
The monumental concept on the landscape, he signifies the recognition
of the transformation of the landscape for his humanization through work-wide
human, creating the beautiful in a large dimension, a monumental dimension
Fig. 4 Monumental and epic landscape of Loriga:
Terraces and glacial Valley of Loriga (PM)
The definition of epic on landscape: when we recognize in
this effort of humanization of landscape, their transformation into cultural
landscape, an exceptionally and continuous effort, during centuries or
millenarian presence of the man, frequently associated with the use of animals,
creating new biotopes by its own action.
Fig. 5 Monumental and epic landscape of Loriga:
Terraces built by the human’s arm and composted by "the ass of the sheep".(AQ)
The tragic (and dramatic),
when we observe the process of abandonment of the cultural landscapes, total or
partial when he left behind the ruins of a farmer, an old mill, a broken wheel, that are the lost signs of the presence
of human communities.
Fig. 6 The
beautiful and the tragic explained by the History and the Ethnography: Casal do
Rei (Couple of King). The mill and the shale bridge (PM)
These categories can be found simultaneously in the
same landscape framework.
But we must consider the negative categories: the
ugly; the horrible; the repugnant;
the disgusting; the repulsive; the hideous...
The management of tourism destiny, public
administration strategy and touristic enterprises, must consider those
esthetical values, esthetical values that carry on moral values.
Arnold Berleant's (2004) approach to environmental
aesthetics considers the human being as an active contributor in a context
where it is a continuous participant, distancing himself from the Kantian
perspective of a contemplative subject and a contemplative object. A person is
the perceptual centre, both as an individual and as a member of a
socio-cultural group, of his or her life-world, whose horizons are shaped by
geographical and cultural factors.( Queirós, 2013)
In their aesthetical perspective, the concept of
landscape can be reduced to a visual direction and includes several dimensions:
admiring the landscape embraces the tactile appeal, the kinesthetic pleasure,
the natural songs, the taste... These rich dimensions are forsaken when
admiring the landscape and are relevant to cultural tourism and nature tourism.
The concept of landscape has
had to be stretched in many directions: from an object to an area, from a
visual experience to a multi-sensory one, from natural scenery to the whole
range of human-made transformations of nature. This expansion of the idea of
landscape is further complicated by the fact that landscapes are never
stationary but are constantly in transition.
(Berleant, 2011)
Re-thinking landscape on the tourism context means
that every landscape is a human artifact: the historical human presence brings
value to the landscape, not only the positive categories of the beauty experiences
in nature but also the negative sublime, to recognize “if such practices also
offend our sensibility; that is, they have aesthetic as well as moral
consequences”. (Berleant, 2011)
Parallel –Aesthetic Categories
We can reference in the landscape a set of categories
that we call “parallel-aesthetics”, carrying an intrinsic moral value and
touristic attraction capacity: "the unique", setting this concept as
susceptible to express the landscape attributes of an uncommon Place. "The
single” defining the own identity of a common landscape object. "The
authentic” attribute applicable to the conservation of objects and original
landscape contexts. "The genuine and rare", objects and Places of
Humanized landscape, that in its process of evolution tend to the disappearance
or corruption…
And differentiate them from “Systemic
Parallel-Aesthetics Categories”.
The discontinuity of forest stands and the
sustainability of agro-forestry “Mosaic” are supported by mountain terraces,
with an amazing hydrological systematization: erosion control, drainage and
reduced dispersion of full tips. Here we can find the use of the traditional
culture and the simplified use of the land: the polyculture and permanent
pasture, terraces with trench irrigation and drainage ditches, the walls
supporting the land, winning against the slopes. Also, this is helped by the
use of the sheep’s herding and the use of manure from their beds to fertilize
the fields
“Prados de lima”, the drought irrigation system in the
winter, with pressure refills of aquifers and summer irrigation.
"The Bocage landscape ", concept shaped from
the French “Bois”, a continuous hedge. With woods at the top of the slope, live
fences and lines of trees linking plaids and armed pasture wisely under the
slope lines, without supporting walls.
"The Oak and the river forest", that
preserving the traditional agriculture, it is a privileged place to avifauna
observation.
"The Water Gardens", landscape places
covering rivers and streams beds.
"Moss-
Gardens": micro-flora and micro-fauna.
All this categories are from the philosophy and
Esthetical domains.
Restructuring
tourism for more competitiveness and productivity (and sustainability)
Offers in Cultural Landscapes -
Circuits and Route products
The growth of competitiveness in the tourism economy
will be sought particularly through the ability to integrate Circuits and
Routes in all patrimonies, which gradually will link the current urban
attraction poles to dynamic regional visits, inter-regional and even
cross-border. With these Routes and Circuits we can promote the upgrading of
the economic status of excursionist to the status of tourist, increasing the
time spent in certain places and the desire or need to return to them. This
will help surpass the seasonality and promote a quality consumption, which will
increase productivity.
The Routes and Circuits will be integrated in their
destinations. These destinations will generate the main profit, but they will
not be the structures that organise these Routes and Circuits (the museums,
monuments and parks) to collect the greatest profit; the profit from tourism
will come from the aforementioned external Chains of Value (Accommodation for
visitors, restaurants, transports and so one). The misunderstanding of this
economic paradox is the cause of the historical conflict between tourism and
development, but is also at the same time the key to overcome it. This is
important particularly in our time, in which a new paradigm of tourism is
emerging - environmental tourism, which means cultural tourism, nature tourism,
and rural tourism, with their specific products and renewed environmental
sustainability requirements, for all other tourist products. (Queirós, 2009)
Nowadays, ecology and landscape aesthetics depend even
more from the labour of farmers and peasants, if we aspire to a full
conservation of the landscape ecology and its aesthetic; with more and more
people leaving the countryside, innumerable biotopes, which are the result from
the interaction of human action with the original biodiversity, will be lost.
With its ruin and emigration, the risk of it disappearing from many cultural
landscapes can become a reality.
On another plan, we must stop the destruction process
of the heritage of historical urban centres. This is why the rehabilitation of
heritage and the conservation of nature and cultural objects has become a vital
issue for business tourism and for the reinforcement of its traditional value
chains.
See below how the existence of an environmental
heritage recognized by the contribution of the different sciences leads us to
the concept of “landscape ecology” and, simultaneously, the recognition of
another intangible heritage translates into “metaphysics of landscape”, two
concepts that are extremely important to define the Nature Tourism and Cultural
Tourism and to organize the products they have to offer in Circuits and Routes.
This new vision of the landscape, multi and
interdisciplinary, which is at the same time an instrument operating its
hermeneutics and a category in the field of Philosophy of Nature, is named:
Ecology of Landscape. In our
definition it represents a structural and systemic view that encompasses the
large natural landscape, characterized and differentiated not only by the
various fields of science (environmental sciences and exact sciences), but also
but also social sciences because it was
created with the help of Man in his daily effort as a farmer, a shepherd and a
landscape architect. (Queirós, 2003:22)
But the interpretation of the landscape, from the
perspective of the philosophy of nature and the environment philosophy, would
be incomplete without the use of another category of elements, which we define
as:
Metaphysics of landscape. It
represents the domain of the "spirituality", "soul" of
things, the categories of aesthetic emotions and feelings, "beauty"
and "beautiful", the "sublime", "wonderful" and
"mysterious", “monumental”, "epic" and "tragic." (Queirós, 2003:23)
Including the negative categories: the disgusting, the
ugly, the repulsive, the abhorrent...
The concepts of Tourist Circuits and Routes are based
on the need to use a scientific methodology, based on an inter- and
multi-discipline, to interpret and organise the visit to the territory, which
allows the tourists to read and interpret their cultural landscapes.
The first key of this reading and interpretation
landscape is the Natural history, Earth Sciences, geology and geomorphology.
The second key is the Life sciences, revealing the splendour of biodiversity.
And the third key is social and artistic History, associated to Ethnography and
Anthropology. But Geography is probably the science, in their scientific work
methodology, closer to tourism studies. (Queirós, 2009)
With this scientific perspective, the essence of the
methodology of scientific work in tourist information and guidelines consists
in 'describing and interpreting' the Earth and the Human Beings who live in
their midst, but by different ways given accessibility to different audience
segments, and by this red line pass the frontier from Geography object study
and the tourism research, including the making of their products.
This conception lead to a philosophy born in the
observation and reading of the landscape and from the synthesis of Earth and
Human Being that dwells and transforms the 'cultural landscape', but at the
same time threatening to degrade or destroy. That contradiction justifies the
need for an ethics of tourism, built from the new Environmental Ethics and
based on the critic of anthropocentrism and ethnocentrism.
Global Code
of Ethics for Tourism
The Global Code of
Ethics for Tourism, adopted in 1999 by the General Assembly of the World
Tourism Organization, its acknowledgement by the United Nations two years later
clearly encouraged the Organization to promote effective follow-up of its
provisions. Although not legally
binding, the Code features a voluntary implementation mechanism through its
recognition of the role of the World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE), to
which stakeholders may refer matters concerning the application and
interpretation of the document. (UNWTO, 2012)
In the field of
philosophy, the relationship between tourism and ethics is engaged by two
central concepts: ontology and epistemology. However, it is also associated to the
Ethics and Aesthetics values, virtue and good practices.
This axiom is supported
by the fact that tourism creates innumerable negatives costs (impacts) that
stem from the pursuit of primarily hedonistic ends.
The position of tourism
research from an ethical standpoint, especially in the light of a better
understanding of human nature, might open up new possibilities for better
grounding and many new forms of alternative or responsible tourism (Fennell,
2011).
But in the heat of the
dispute, some authors led to raise controversy “against” the ethics of tourism
(Butcher, 2011), particularly emphasizing the contradictions between mass
tourism and ecotourism. We think that cannot reduce the debate to these issues.
In this period emerged a
new ethical framework, environmental ethics:
For approximately a quarter of a century, moral reflection has turned to
a new object: the environment. Environmental ethics has emerged primarily in
the United States out of considerations on Nature in the wild state - the wilderness
- and the duty to preserve it. As such, it divides into two trends. The first
seeks to develop a general theory of moral value, an abstract, universal
principle qualifying individual entities, such that the intrinsic value of
living entities deserves our respect. The second, first formulated by an
American forester, Aldo Leopold, is an ethics of the biotic community: how
Nature can be a community of which we are members, and in within which it is
possible for us to conduct ourselves well. (Larrère, 2006:0)
Utilitarian
ethics
Utilitarian ethics from
Jeremy Bentham (18st-19st centuries) and Stuart Mill (19st century), assume
that not only the individual action, but also all the Government measures
enhance well-being and reduce suffering. This creates a distance from the
primacy of Aristotelian duty (eudainomia), which justifies the morality of
action based on benefits for the subject and/or on the principle of less
suffering caused to “another”.
The hedonistic vision
inspired by Jeremy Bentham, identifying the profile of the contemporary tourist
with the individual freedom and pleasure
In the Kantian
categorical imperative, this is an end in itself and cannot be used/annihilated
as a means to benefit other people, even if to achieve a higher benefit, which
in this case is to reduce casualties.
Concerning the tremendous influence of the modern technique the nature,
Hans Jonas, a German Jew that immigrated to Canada and the USA, in “The
Imperative of Responsibility In Search of an Ethic for the Technological Age”
(1979), formulates a new categorical imperative for human action, beyond the
Kantian imperative ethic of the conformation of individual acts with the
principle of a universal law (Kant, 1789). He designs a new ethical framework,
which is a result of the need to configure the human conduct within the limits
that safeguard the continuity of life and its diversity:
Act
so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of
genuine human life. (Jonas,
1979)
Amongst
this ethical principle we are at the border of the humanism, but still remain at
the frontier of anthropocentrism.
Enlarging
the concepts of Community and Person
The new categorical
imperatives of Environmental Ethics emerge from this framework:
Nature shall be included in our field of moral
reflection - our duties, before limited to human beings, shall be extended to
other natural beings.
Waters, like
soil, is part of the energy
circuit. Industry, by polluting waters or obstructing them with dams, may
exclude the plants and animals necessary to keep energy in circulation…The
image commonly employed in conservation education is «the balance of
nature»..this figure of speech fails to describe accurately what little we know about the land
mechanism. A much true image is the one employed in ecology: the biotic
pyramid…Poundage or tonnage is no measure of the food–value of farm corps; the
products of fertile soil may be qualitatively as well quantitatively superior… (Leopold, 1949:251-255)
In name of the principle of equality, Singer and Regan
refused the concept of the superiority of the human species that is compared to
racism, for violating the censoring principle of human
non-recognition, the capacity of feeling and suffering of animals. In their
work, they claim that animals are subjects of interest in not suffering and
also as Regan adds, are subjects of law, by which they are entitled to a life
experience that has intrinsic value
Their
main propose is the expansion of the concept of person:
I propose the
use of 'person', to be rational and self-conscious, to incorporate the elements
of the popular sense of human being that are not covered by member of species
Homo Sapiens. (Singer, 1980)
A planetary community: The principles of a “common
house” and “loyalty”
The feeling of need for help and defense, developed
throughout the process of natural selection, spawned the concept of the
Community, which is the basis of the ethic.
In our
historical and environmental context, humanity is confronted for the first time
with the danger of its own extinction, either as a result of an environmental
disaster, or as the tragic outcome of a nuclear or biological war, as well as a
pandemic financial crisis on multiple continents.
New principles emerged
from the first United Nations environmental conference, held in Stockholm in
1972: one of them was the principle of a “common house”:
… man has two homelands, his own and planet Earth. (Dubos, R and
Ward, B., 1972)
But also the principle of
“loyalty”, a planetary community and solidarity, founders of a new
international order (an ethical order) and the principle of defending the
intrinsic value of Life on the planet and their biodiversity.
…Today, we can only expect to survive if our precious diversity is
intact and has the conditions to generate a fundamental loyalty towards our
planet Earth, this unique planet, so beautiful and so vulnerable.
(Dubos, R and Ward, B., 1972)
Those principles created
a first rupture line with the cultural and political perspective of ethnocentrism
and anthropocentrism. The critique of environmental philosophy queries our
civilization mode, in the perspective of environmental reason. Nature shall be
included in our field of moral reflection. Our duties, before limited to human
beings, must be expanded to the domains of the “Land Ethic” and “Animal
Ethics”.
The imperative of perpetual peace
…everything is
lost where peace is lost,
and first of
all freedom is lost.
(Sena, J., 1984)
In this
historical and environmental context, humanity is confronted for the first time
with the danger of its own extinction, either as a result of environmental
disaster, or as the tragic outcome of a nuclear or biological war and pandemic
financial crises on multiple continents.
And it is here
that a new categorical imperative of Environmental Ethics arises: The imperative
of perpetual peace.
A new
scientific paradigm for science and civilization and the significance of the
new environmental ethics
The scientific and technical contemporary progress
erupted in the interface of traditional disciplines. We believe that is from
this matrix of science and moral intersection which made the scientific
foundations of environmental consciousness in its varied hues emerge: biology,
history, physics and chemistry, literature and the natural sciences,
communication sciences, earth and life sciences, etc., are making the
environmental crisis visible.
But we aren’t saying that the modern environmentalist
philosophy represents the triumph of consciousness and the ethics of life
against the indifference and the horror of our time. We’re trying to say that
it is against the amorality, barbarism and indolent social that such awareness
emerges: Refusing death, the nonsensical and the night of our civilization, and
penetrating all domains of human thought and culture (s). The philosophy of
environment obliges the reinterpretation of the more conservative books, the
sacred books of all religions and the traditional way of understanding their
doctrines. Let us question the most important political paradigms from
nineteenth century, the main ideologies offered to our century, the Marxism and
the Liberalism.
Is time to conclude that
the Code perspectives, based in the Aristotelian paradigm of virtue ethics, eudaimonia; the Kantian paradigm of the
categorical imperative respect for the person and the paradigm of the
utilitarian ethics considering the greatest good (Jamal and Menzel, 2011), don’t
have the same view as the environmental philosophy and their environmental
ethics. The environmental ethics perspective is systemic; the Human being
doesn’t remain at the center of their concept of value, as an absolute and
discretionary master of nature. According to environmental ethics perspective,
every human activity, including the tourism activities, must subordinate itself
to the respect and conservation of the biotic community and non biotic
community. The principles of Land Ethics and Animal Ethics with their own values,
in the philosophical, ethical and aesthetic sense, must be considered in the
moral conduct of the human societies and tourism activities.
This matrix of interdisciplinary
science and moral intersection is applied to the new concepts of Circuit and
Tour:
We define
tourist Circuit as a road
integrating all heritage products, short-lived (should not exceed one
day/night), accessible to all audiences but segmented in an autonomous and
distinctive identity, organized in the context of discovery and enjoyment of
the landscape ecology (in the sense of interdisciplinary contribution to
reading the landscape) and the metaphysics of landscape (immaterial heritage,
imaginary erudite and popular), and using the communication/emotional principle
of "montage of attractions", created to sustain and develop value
chains of tourist activity.(Queirós, 2009:54)
W
tourist Route as an organized
set of Circuits to discover and enjoy all heritages, with a unique identity,
based on ecology and landscape metaphysics, accessible to all audiences but
with different products according their segments, organized to serve the
development of tourist activity and their value chains. (Queirós, 2009:54)
Although there are common elements among the Circuits
(for example, churches of the same era, gourmet dishes, the same flora) the
mixture of their heritage should produce a single offer and identity. And it is
in this matter that the activity of tourism differs from other scientific
fields, because selection and value are determined by the differentiation of
the tourism products, not from scientific criteria values.
This new concept is built upon the conceptual
contributions of geography, selective observation and significant description
of the cultural landscape - its historical, natural, ethnographic heritage; the
philosophy of nature and the philosophy of the environment, “ecology and
metaphysics of landscape"; communication sciences, involving the
psychology of feels and the cinema (the montage of attractions is a concept
from Eisenstein); economy, “value chains”. And its methodological construction
consists in recycle traditionally concepts used in another scientific fields
and reprocess them to a new subject of study.
The
reproduction of touristic capital: Externalities and Competition
The Routes and Circuits (including the offer of the cultural heritage
and the natural heritage) will be integrated in their destinations. These cultural
and natural products will generate the main profit, but they will not be the
structures that organize these Routes and Circuits (the museums, monuments and
parks) to collect the greatest profit; the profit from tourism will come from
the aforementioned external Value Chains (accommodation, catering,
merchandising, animation, transport, guides and agencies).
Chains Values of tourism needs to incorporate
new products and even other values and what its historical relationship with
the heritage (s)?
For many years hotels was the main from
tourism attraction. What's changed since then?
Taken a
as the variable of the accommodation and p
the variable which represents the patrimony (cultural heritage and natural
heritage). In the past p=f(a)… Currently a = f (p). (Queirós, 2015:198-199)
The misunderstanding of this economic paradox is the cause of the
historical conflict between tourism and sustainable development, but is also at
the same time the key to overcome it. This is important particularly in our
time, in which a new paradigm of tourism is emerging - environmental tourism,
which means cultural tourism, nature tourism, and rural tourism, with their
specific products and renewed environmental sustainability requirements, for
all other tourist products.
To achieve the “Environmental tourism”, the new paradigm of tourism, we
need to apply a new ethical perspective to the economical and financial issues,
and to the political governance.
The new tourist products, from Cultural Tourism and Tourism of Nature,
as merchandise that they are, have an added value and an exchange value,
comparable to common goods. However, the
products of Cultural Tourism and Tourism
of Nature in the market competition have a strange behavior. This competition,
for differentiation, generates complementary and cooperative networks, without
exclusion of the competitor.
Indeed, the tourist consumer of Cultural Tourism and Tourism of Nature
products tends to visit all the museums and monuments, different protected
areas and cultural landscapes and not to settle unique a product, or icon or
mark. (Queirós,
2015:202)
If municipality wants to become a pole of attraction
integrate in a new touristic destination, must consider the cooperation with all
the neighbors to create scale in the competition with the consolidated tourism
destinations. They need to organize common Routes and Circuits justifying at
least a journey visit (a day and one night) and several journeys crossing the
territory unified, on the context of a Route of environmental tourism.
What are cultural tourism and tourism
of nature? Organization and products
We propose the following definition to the cultural
tourism:
An organic and productive
branch of tourism incorporating levels of design, organization and promotion,
contents and materials from the domain of culture and scientific culture, particularly in the
essence of cultural tourism, Museum and Heritage Sciences. (Queirós, 2009:109)
And in the core of the Nature Tourism, you can find
other contents and materials from Environmental Sciences. However, when
adjusted to the dynamics and the objectives of the tourism economy, in the
framework of the management of their value chains, we can distinguish clearly
these concepts looking into their different organic structures and products.
Cultural Tourism only exists if it’s present the
network of museums, monuments and archaeological and historical sites and
centres, particularly those which are World Heritage, cultural festivals and
celebrations. Museums, in the largest definition of ICOM (International Council
of Museum), are the major organic structures of Cultural Tourism.
The products offered by Cultural Tourism, are the
collections display at museums (permanent or temporary), from the Louvre to the
Prado, monuments, and archaeological and historical sites and centres
(particularly those which are Human Heritage), festivals and celebrations with
a value of identity, local matter, at regional, national or international
levels, like the Holy Week celebrations in Castilla or the Fátima Sanctuary
celebrations, in Portugal. Cultural Tourism also offers the architectural value
of patrimony structures, like the iconic Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao or the
monumental complex of Alhambra in Granada, Spain.
All these organic structures of Cultural Tourism
(museums, monuments, science centres...) are operating today as interpretation
centres to their diverse audience segments (the tourists surpass the segment of
the public school) and temporary events also require an organizational
structure itself, even if assembled for a limited period, which increasingly
tends to set in partial but permanent forms of memory and event promotion. This
is the case with the creation of museums of the Holy Week in Spain or of the
apparitions in Fatima, Portugal, or in Lourdes, France, that complement the
Sanctuaries. And these temples are evolving in the complexity of products and
as a standing offer, in addition to the dates of pilgrimages.
Therefore, the concept of cultural tourism must
naturally integrate religious tourism, because that concept is larger than the
second and the religious phenomenon is one of humanity's cultural expressions.
The idea of Cultural tourism based on built heritage,
views and lifestyle, as well as events and happenings, proposed by Swarbrooke
(2002), gives us a rough overview of the diversity of contexts and products of
cultural tourism. It should be connected to the specific function of tourism
economy and, in this context, should lead us to study how today it constitutes
and can reproduce the tourist capital, based on its relationship with the
culture industry, and most of all to recognise the extension of the cultural
penetration into the tourist activity, which may have led to profound changes
in the traditional paradigm of tourism.
The major structures of Nature Tourism are the Parks
and Natural Reserves, paleontological, and nature interpretation Centres, and
their landscape - humanized landscape (cultural landscape or “terroir”), with a
special focus on those classified as World Heritage. The products offered by
Nature Tourism or Ecological Tourism, structured within this network in the
context of cultural and natural landscapes, offer the discovery of nature
diversity, observation of species, small and large pedestrian routes, and the
pleasure of a human re-approach to nature, with all the sensations. We include
Health Tourism to the above mentioned: Thermal and water pleasures (SPA), the French
thalassotherapy (sea station), mountain stations, wellness, the functional
(healthy) food tours and itineraries offered by Circuits. And we also include
Sports in Nature as part of Active Tourism: hiking, walking, climbing,
canoeing, skiing or motorized vehicles. These products are shared with Rural
Tourism. Integrating the health aspect with Nature Tourism becomes an obvious
choice when we realise that the network of Thermal Baths occurs in zones of
geological faults and dating back to at least the Romanization period of the
Iberian Peninsula and Europe. And even more when we adopt the current formula
of the World Health Organization (WHO) to establish its content:
The WHO defines health as "a State of complete
physical, mental and social well-being, which is not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity". This approach amplifies the biological concept of
health, because it includes the psychological and social components of the
human being and an ethical dimension. The functional food and the conditions
surrounding the conservation of nature are now inextricably linked to the
modern Spas, just as they already were connected to the Baths of classical
civilizations.
The products offered by Rural Tourism include
accommodation in traditional homes as well as the discovery of humanized
landscapes (cultural landscapes, the French "terroir" concept) and/or
participating in the agriculture work cycles, associated to Active Tourism:
road trips, hikes, TT, horseback riding, hunting and fishing, and Golf Tourism.
Usually this typological framework does not apply to golf, but, golf normally
implies the creation of a cultural landscape in the rural space not in urban or
virgin landscapes, which adapt traditional landscapes to new functions while
keeping the landscape setting. Golf, like tennis, will be gradually
democratized and accessible to the middle class. Their social value, can
attract a younger crowd and promote fitness and an active ageing. The current
breakdown between Golf and Rural Tourism, is the issue of deficient integration
of tourist products in the same destination.
Other activities that relay rural tourism to Health
tourism include outdoor hiking, a demand for air and water in pollution free
woods and springs, and traditional, biological and healthy food.
The joint offering of Cultural Tourism and Nature
Tourism, which may include the products of Rural Tourism, can be called
Environmental Tourism.
Mass tourism versus ecotourism, the
controversy
The debate among ecotourism and its critics (Butcher,
2011), has initially been focused on opposing mass tourism to ecotourism
identified as a small niche of customers, with limited financial size and market
needs. Another argument, a moral and politic argument, it was the option of
local people, not for preserve old techniques and natural heritage, but to
choose new productive technologies,
infrastructures, jobs and commodities…the Spanish example of Torremolinos, a poor fishing community that was transformed
into a prosperous resort, and the impact
of tourism revenues from the 1960s in Spain’s economic modernization, for
instance.
Ecotourism ,
environmental philosophy and ethics of tourism, they are accused to be
…anti-modern, and likely to take sides against any desire for
substantial development, even in economically poor societies. (Butcher, 2011:255).
The same author
identifies the advocacy of ethical tourism with the adjectives small, local and
participatory, and most associate it with sustainability. And concludes:
This serves to accentuate the limiting philosophy of “small is
beautiful” and deny the many benefits of large scale development. (Butcher, 2011:249).
The democratization and socialization of education and
culture, as well as the evolution of big markets around the world solved some
of the opposing issues: Cultural Tourism has become a mass tourism. such as Tourism of nature, in
America, Europe and Asia. This new reality became clear when the research on
the “motivations” of tourism travelling was completed with the research of the real
activities carried out by tourists. Spanish tourism data ( Spain was the 2th
international destiny and remains the 2th in the ranking of income) gives a complete statistical evaluation about
tourist activities, which clearly explains this evolution:
Consulting the data of
“Movimientos Turísticos en Fronteras (IET) _ 2008”, the statistics about
cultural tourism reveal that they represent 55% (30.665 from
55.762 thousand) of all international tourists activities and those tourists correspond to 60% of tourism rent;
they stayed about 10,3 days, a number that exceeds the national average; return frequently,
79,6% and more than 10 times 30,5%. (Source: IET. International border
travelling. International Tourists Activities. 2007 and 2008. Tourism Studies Institute
Spain). The dominance of cultural tourism has a
parallel with the fall down of traditional activities in the beach.
In the next years, the
dominant tendency to prefer cultural tourism activities - visiting museums and
monuments, cultural events assistance and others - is confirmed and
consolidated: 2009: 53,5 % of international tourists; 2010, 51,3% Growing again 10% in 2011 and 5% in 2012, to 54% (Source: IET_EGATUR).
The French Louvre can be
considered the great cosmologic observatory of tourism and tourists and their
metamorphosis market:
First. The growth of
visitors, 8 413 000 in 2010 to 9.330.000 at 2013 ( and 2014). 70% are
international tourists. 68% pay their ticket entrance.
Second. Origin: 30%
France, 70% from other countries: USA, 13%. Italy 5% and China 5% ( China grow
to 6% and takes the second place in 2014). Spain 5% and Germany 4%, Brazil 4%,
UK 4% and Russian 4%...Australia 3%...
Age: 50% young people
under 30 old.
Over 14.000.000 on
Louvre web site. Loading 480.000 audio
guide and 103.000 mobile application charged. ( Source, Louvre, 2015)
A new middle class
emerges from China, Brasil and Russian is patent.
The growth of the museum
offer, in all the countries and the development of the museum concept can also
explain this change in the demand from the middle class:
A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of
society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves,
researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of
humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and
enjoyment. (ICOM,
2007)
The scientific-technical revolution
creates a dynamic of innovation in this sector, with the development of the
museums and science centers of 2nd and 3rd generation, design under the sign of
participation and interaction of their audiences.
The new museums and the
use of modern technologies of restoration, conservation, information and
communication, could reduce the negative impacts of mass tourism.
About the tourism of
nature or ecotourism, there are no clear and accurate statistics, but we can
establish their relevance, for example, by considering the number of visitors
of Spanish national parks ( and take note that several national parks not have
visitors date) , which represent only a fraction of the tourists who seek all
the parks, reserves and the cultural landscapes of Spain: more than 10.618.284,
in 2007! And more of 12.252.000 in 2010!
In the 2009 Conference
Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism, sponsored by the International Ecotourism
Society, most of the discussions at the conference focused on how to define
environmental tourism practices and how to create appropriate guidelines and
implementation strategies, especially when the practices are motivated by the
interests of tourists and tourism operators from outside those communities.
The new challenge is how
thinking a new mass tourism in an ethical perspective: the ecotourisme.
However we need to build
a consensus about these concepts. We propose the definition of Cultural Tourism
as the tourism based in the cultural structures, namely museums and monuments
and their material and immaterial heritage; Tourism of Nature ( in the nature -
wilderness and mixed wilderness/cultural landscapes) organized by the parks and
reserves; and distinguish them from Rural Tourism ( in the humanized landscape,
landscape in the sense of the Greek oikoumenê
gê, the French terroir, the
“cultural landscape”) organized by the
rural farmers and hotels.
The weight of this middle class and its instruction
and cultural level, in parallel with the emancipation of the working woman, a
contemporary youth increasingly educated and the anticipation of an active
retirement in segments of the middle class, generated a change in the social
weight of this class and in those preferences or "taste" :The modern social taste of
the middle class includes a new global concept about Art and Aesthetics. New
moral and ethic values face nature, heritage, environment and landscape, by
influence of the Environmental Philosophy in every scientific domain and
development process.
The case study of Portugal: some
notes
We can make the synthesis of tendencies of cultural
changes in the demand of Portuguese leisure, balance the visitors of museums,
monuments and galleries, with the spectators of football stadiums. The main
National Football League closed 2013
with the balance, in the 30 rounds of the competition, attracting 2.343.284 fans to the stadiums, 11% less than the total recorded in
2011-12 (2.629.950). The national score of museums visitors in the year of 2011
was 13.495.187: zoological gardens (zoos), botanic gardens and aquariums
representing 3.317.790 visitors and the museums 10.177.397. It’s a value
growing every year, despite the crises. International tourists represent
3.351.144 and teachers and students in school groups 2.111.452.
Table 1. Visitants of museums,
zoological gardens (zoos), botanic gardens and aquariums.
Source: INE. National
Institute of Statistic, 2011
Art museums are in the top with 3.057.678 visitants; museums
of history in the second place, with 2.686.272 visitants and in the third place
the specialized
museums with 1.348.341 visitors.
Monuments, like palaces, convents and monasteries, towers,
which are too, as the museums, organic
structures of cultural tourism, haven’t in Portugal a global data base
concerning their visitors. But we can estimate that
number, departing from objective criterion and exact records.
The World Heritage List of UNESCO
Cultural
Alto Douro
Wine Region (2001)
Central Zone of the Town of Angra do Heroismo in the
Azores (1983)
Convent of Christ in Tomar (1983)
Cultural
Landscape of Sintra (1995)
Garrison Border Town of Elvas and its Fortifications
(2012)
Historic Centre of Évora (1986)
Historic Centre of Guimarães (2001)
Historic Centre of Oporto (1996)
Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture (2004)
Monastery of Alcobaça (1989)
Monastery of Batalha (1983)
Monastery of the Hieronymites and Tower of Belém in
Lisbon (1983)
Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley and Siega
Verde (1998)
University
of Coimbra – Alta and Sofia (2013)
Laurisilva of Madeira (1999)
Table 2. Visitors of the
national monuments. A short list
Palácio Nacional da
Ajuda 53.534
|
Palácio Nacional de
Mafra 274.255
|
Panteão
Nacional
89.629
|
Total
417.418
|
World Heritage List of
UNESCO
|
Convento de Cristo
Convent of Christ in
Tomar 209.294
|
Mosteiro de
Alcobaça Monastery of Alcobaça 187.499
|
Mosteiro da
Batalha Monastery of Batalha 300.565
|
Mosteiro dos
Jerónimos Monastery of the Hieronymites 807.845
|
Torre de Belém Tower of Belém 530.903
|
Total
2.036.106
|
Source: DGPC. National Board of Cultural
Heritage, 2014
Table 3. Visitor
of Palaces and Monuments of Sintra, in the context of Cultural
Landscape of Sintra (UNESCO, World Heritage)
Source: Parques de Sintra-Monte da Lua S.A. (PSML), Visitors Statistics, 2015
In the city of
Oporto, the second town of Portugal, with the Historic Centre of Oporto
classified as World Heritage, the famous monument Palácio da Bolsa (Palace of the Bourse) incorporate 288.705
guiding visits. Another group of monuments classified by UNESCO, in the center
of Portugal, University of Coimbra – Alta and Sofia, recorded 355.000 visitors
from 60 different countries. In the same city of Coimbra, the thematic park for
kids, on the subject of national monuments and architecture of the colonial
Portuguese empire, the Portugal dos Pequenitos ( Portugal of the little kids),
recorded 228.000 visitors in 2014.
The main organic structures of Tourism of Religion, a branch of the cultural tourism
offer, are the sanctuaries; religious
services celebrate on the Santuário de Fátima in the year 2014 represent 3.209.000 pilgrims.
At least, Art Galleries
and others cultural spaces of exhibition, which
are too, organic structures of cultural tourism, recorded 8.834.971 visitors.
Table 4. Visitors
of Art Galleries and others cultural spaces of exhibition
Source: INE. National
Institute of Statistic, 2011
Only in this very incomplete list we can find
13.495.187 visitors of museums, zoological
gardens (zoos), botanic gardens and aquariums; 8.479.118 visitors of the
monuments with a ticket entrance_ a total of 21.974.305. However, we must
consider almost 50% of other visitors that access only to the open spaces of
the museums and monuments. Galleries recorded 8.834.971 visitors_ a new total of 30.809.276
visitors.
The management of these
monuments involves their restoration, requalification, revitalisation,
conservation, research, publicity and operation, opening them to public
fruition and enhancing their touristic valour.
What represents this global
value to the national economy? We must confine our study on the context of a
sample article, but we can give an example about what means “enhancing their
touristic valour”, reveling the last values of the Museu of Conimbriga long
study of tourism impact on the Chains of Valor of tourism. This museum
represents the micro cosmos of Portuguese tourism: visitors came for all
Portuguese regions and from all the countries, on a correct balance of social
levels, gender and age, face the national tourism data.
Table 5. Externalities
of Museum of Conimbriga visitor
Source: Cefop.Conimbriga
(I&D) research data, 2014
In the last fifteen years, the
centre of research Cefop.Conimbriga (I&D), located at the Museu Monográfico
de Conimbriga, an archeological site near Coimbra, that includes a museum and
the ruins of the old roman town of Conimbriga, inquires every year direct and personally
the visitors. Covering all types of
visitors, crossing the four seasons, the questionnaire record hundred of
replies and every year the sample must to accomplish 1.200/1.500 peoples, from
all the countries, in a universe of 100.000 visitors/year average. Tourists
are 88,30% and excursionist 11,70%. Tourists spend on the Chains of Value more
than 7.000.000 €/year. The impact of excursionist is near 700.000 €. Subventions
of government to the budget of the museum can be in the range from 400.000 to
500.000 € per year.
As well in the next figure,
concerning a global study for United King market, investing in cultural
heritage is investing in success.
Table 6. Heritage
and the UK tourism economy
Source: Heritage
Lottery Fund, Report, 2010
CONCLUSIONS: Paradigme et Herméneutique du Tourisme
A new theory of tourism
must be the first consequence of the changing of paradigm and a new hermeneutic
emerges from that
conceptual framework.
This
article, discussing those issues, formulates four key problems and a double
heuristic, negative and positive:
_ The State of research
in tourism: what are the developments of the themes of research over the past
decades in the field of tourism?
In our opinion the
ecotourism or environmental tourism and the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
must be at the centre of the debate.
This controversy
requires the analyze of the philosophical sources adopted by the advocate of
ecotourism against the hedonistic philosophy and the approach of the new
philosophical paradigm, the philosophy of the environment (and the environmental
ethics); but also the critical study of the evolution of the market and the resolutions
of the equations tourism cultural-tourism of masses, economy of heritage-economy
of tourism, development
sustainable-participation-sharing.
_ How are structured advanced
research and applied research?
To gives an answer, he must to
make another question: using the traditional method of the science_ dialogue
between observation and mathematical concepts, basic research and applied
research were able to interrogate the globalization of tourism and to provide
the means to construct a unified theory of tourism?
The research of a new paradigm
comply a new definition of the area of research; among others: new products and
services, as those of ecotourism, affecting the reliability of the (CST)
Tourism Satellite Account, what means updating the conceptualization of new
categories or types of tourism...
We propose two
conceptual criteria to establish the types of tourism: differentiation of the
categories of tourism by their organic structures and for its distinctive
products.
About
the nature of the market demand the concept of 'motivation' is consensual to
understand and explain the nature of tourism demand, but it is not enough. We need
to expand the hermeneutics of tourism with the notion of 'taste ' (
preferences)…
_ Methodologies are frozen?
Without ignore the
economics dimension of tourism activities and the progress of economical theory
to understand the nature of their business and its apparent transformation in 'tourism
industry', our perspective considers that the economy of tourism, especially
the economy of the cultural tourism and
of tourism of nature (environmental tourism), manifest singularities and
dissonances on the traditional market: incomes are generate by the organic
structures of cultural tourism and by the organic structures of the tourism of
nature, however profits are made on the
Values Chains, a phenomena of externalities represented by the new function a =
f (p); the products of cultural tourism and the products of
tourism of nature entering in competition on the market don’t excluded each
other; people that visit a museum want to visit all the museums, a market
singularity that could promote environmental Routes and Circuits between
different municipalities, regions, border territories and countries;
a second dimension of modern tourism is
anthropological and socio-cultural, were the relevance of the social taste (
preferences) of medium classes is crucial, conducing to a third dimension,
historical and political,
were the ethical imperatives are critical, namely the imperative of perpetual
peace. Those dimensions are inseparable
on the tourism hermeneutic.
However,
the new paradigm of tourism is configured to a four dimension, the reintegration of the human being
in Nature without any privilege, providential destiny and supremacy, under the critical
cosmovision from the environment philosophy and the environmental ethics, with intrinsic morals values and
aesthetic values.
_ The specificity of
tourism as object of research, with diverse paradigms generate by the globalization
and differentiation of markets, means to break with an ethnocentric vision and
an anthropocentric vision?
This short essay has concluded for the coexistence of
different paradigms in global and domestic markets, with the rise of cultural
tourism and tourism of nature (environmental tourism).
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