XVI Міжнародної наукової конференції "Китайська цивілізація: традиції та сучасність"
Kiev, 30 November 2021
Modern model of the socio-economic development of China
CHINA, FROM NEW DEMOCRACY TOWARD ECOLOGICAL SOCIALISM AND ECOCIVILIZATION (New Full Texte)
CHINA,
FROM NEW DEMOCRACY TOWARD ECOLOGICAL SOCIALISM AND ECOCIVILIZATION[1]
Santos
Queirós, António.
ORCID iD 0000-0002-1241-5831
Doctor of
Philosophy of Sciences, Professor
Researcher of
Environmental Philosophy and Ethics
Center of
Philosophy of University of Lisbon
School of
Arts and Humanities of the University of Lisbon
Portugal
This essay aims to analyze the environmental changes that have occurred in the People's Republic of China during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Crucially, this analysis necessitates questioning whether Western political hermeneutics is an adequate framework for understanding the People's Republic of China. A historical perspective is essential: if the People's Republic of China represents a new historical experience of democracy and socialism, then Western political hermeneutics is inherently inadequate for its comprehension. Chinese political philosophy, from its classical roots to its modern iterations, provides the necessary tools for analyzing these challenges and interpreting China's own framework of understanding. Our research identifies a significant historical element in modern Chinese philosophy. Historically, Confucianism, Taoism, and Mohism often remained outside the official sphere of imperial politics, while Legalism dominated as the prevailing political philosophy serving the imperial state. Following the 1911 revolution, China's political philosophy was fundamentally shaped by progressive institutions and leaders, from Sun Yat-sen to the Communist leaders. While classical thinkers focused primarily on educating citizens, Sun Yat-sen's Kuomintang aimed to achieve national progress through a novel political system and a new political philosophy: the Three Principles of the People. Subsequently, the Communist Party and its allies promoted a new vision, evolving from New Democracy to Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and, more recently, to Ecological Socialism and the project of Ecocivilization. The evolution of political economy has been a key factor in determining different periods of environmental evolution within the state. Consequently, this essay will examine the political philosophy of major CPC figures and the socialist state's official statements, comparing established Western hermeneutic paradigms with the developing Chinese political philosophy.
Keywords:
Philosophy of Nature, Political Philosophy, Environmental crisis. New Era.
Ecocivilization
КИТАЙ ВІД НОВОЇ ДЕМОКРАТІЇ ДО ЕКОЛОГІЧНОГО СОЦІАЛІЗМУ
ТА ЕКОЦИВІЛІЗАЦІЇ [1]
Сантуш Кейрос, A.
ОРСІД іД 0000-0002-1241-5831
Доктор філософських наук, Повний професор
Дослідник екологічної філософії та етики
Центр філософії Лісабонського університету
Факультет мистецтв Лісабонського університету
Португалія
Це має на меті охарактеризувати екологічну трансформацію КНР у 20/21 століттях.
У цьому сенсі необхідно поставити під сумнів, чи
адекватні західні концептуальні
рамки політичної герменевтики для розуміння Китайської
Народної
Республіки_КНР.
Історична перспектива є вирішальною: Якщо Китайська Народна Республікапредставляє новий історичний досвід демократії та соціалізму, то західна концептуальна основа політичної герменевтики не є адекватною для розуміння Китайської Народної Республіки_НРЧ. Критичним ресурсом для аналізу цієї апорії є політична філософія, від її класичних коренів до сучасних внесків політичної філософії, з яких Китай створює свою власну герменевтику. Наш дослідницький шлях виявив унікальність філософських думок сучасного Китаю. У минулому конфуціанство, даосизм і мохізм не були філософією імператорського двору, і філософи залишалися осторонь і дивилися всередину. Легалізм був панівною політичною філософією, синкретичною філософією, яка служила феодальному суспільству. Після революції 1911 року ядро політичної філософії було сформовано сучасними політичними інститутами та лідерами, від першої Республіки до різних періодів Китайської Народної Республіки. Завданням класичних філософів було політичне виховання влади та народу. Доктрина Сан Мін Чу Гоміндана Сунь Ятсена з трьома принципами людей хотіла виконати цю історичну місію. Досягти цього пропонують Комуністична Партія та Єдиний Фронт із 8 демократичних партій, від Нової Демократії до Соціалізму з Китайською Специфікою. З цієї причини це дослідження зосереджується на внеску та працях політичної філософії головних діячів КПК та соціалістичної Держави. Політична парадигма західної герменевтики порівнюватиметься з теоретичною концептуалізацією китайських політичних теорій. Ключові слова: Філософія Природи, Політична Філософія, Екологічна Криза, Ера
Research
methods and literature review
The Paradigm Concept and the Critique
of Traditional Categories in Political Philosophy
The general definition of a paradigm includes a
"disciplinary matrix," which is a constellation of beliefs, values,
and techniques shared by a community (Kuhn, 1962). The presence of a few
anomalies is not enough to abandon a previous paradigm. This occurs only when,
within a phenomenological study, one observes several unexplained or unexpected
events, and a rival paradigm emerges. This process does not happen suddenly. A
paradigm remains stable if it can: Increase the accuracy of its observations
and judgments. Be extended to study new phenomena. Determine the values of
universal constants. Formulate quantitative laws that allow for a better
understanding of the connections between different phenomena. Create new
processes to apply the paradigm to new areas.
However, the recognition of two competing
paradigms requires that their researchers use the same conceptual framework.
This is often difficult in political philosophy due to the proliferation of
fundamental political concepts. It is therefore imperative to create a more
universal academic and scientific political language to build maximum consensus
and rigor on the concepts used in the study of political phenomenology. The
first step must be to eliminate the fallacies stemming from Cold War propaganda
regarding the nature of the Chinese state. As a case in point, the term
"communist state" is a propaganda concept from the Cold War. None of
the theories of communism propose a communist state, as the utopia of communism
is the end of the state, which is always viewed as an instrument of oppression
and power of one class over another.
In this research program, we will use the two
methodological routes outlined by Lakatos: a negative heuristic, which rejects
political fallacies and a positive heuristic, which builds a new core of
non-falsifiable scientific propositions. New political philosophies, such as
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, New Democracy, Ecological Socialism,
Socialist Market Economy, and Ecocivilization, were previously unknown within
the Western paradigm. Ecological Socialism and Ecological Civilization are two
new concepts of political philosophy associated with the New Era that are still
insufficiently studied globally. They are the pillars of a new political
paradigm.
The focus of the article is the characterization of China's ecological transformation in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, with four distinct periods of this transformation being analyzed. This is a singular first effort to organize that synthesis, so there is no academic debate on it yet. Applying dual methodology and criteria: the development of political economy within the context of environmental philosophy. Building a New Democracy and Socialism with Chinese Characteristics in modern China was not merely an academic debate. China's political philosophy developed within state institutions, including the Communist party of China_ CPC, eight democratic parties, and all levels of government, using the representative system of the National People's Congress_ NPC and Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference_ CPPCC as ensured by the People's Republic of China_ PRC Constitution. Academia has also played a significant role in shaping these concepts. This article was first presented at the XVI International Scientific Conference, where the core of the debate was China's "modern socio-economic development." Following this pathway, the development of political economy will be used as a critical indicator to identify distinct stages of environmental change. However, this approach raised a critical aporia: Western poitical hermeneutics may not effectively interpret China's unique experience of democracy and socialism. The solution lies in using Chinese political philosophy, both classical and modern, to analyze these challenges and understand China's distinct perspective. From Sun Yat-sen San Min Chu Doctrine to the Xi JInping Thought, this pathway is the Ariadne file.
The Ariadne's Thread of Chinese
Political Philosophy: Peace and Human Welfare
Sun Yat-sen carefully studied the birth of modern
democracy in Western countries and the nature of modern warfare. He also
studied the forces that create national groups and nationalities. He discovered
that modern wars are "real class wars" and declared that the Russian
Revolution had changed the world, leading to the potential for a new type of
democracy to emerge in every country.
Sun Yat-sen's program for a New China was
supported by the unique character of Chinese political philosophy, which was
imbued with the great ideal of peace. Confucius and Mencius, without
questioning the feudal order as a divine mandate, advocated for harmony between
man and nature. They understood moral progress as being based on a better
understanding of nature. They developed the key concepts of their philosophy: Ren
(仁):
Humanity, which means respect and compassion for others, including animals. Li
(礼):
Ritual, in the sense of a social contract. Yi (义): Duty, seen as a moral imperative
for a ruler to govern for the good of the people, order, and peace, and which
also provides the people with the right to revolt if the ruler does not comply.
The path of virtue advocated by Laozi and Taoism criticizes
the excesses of the feudal court and warfare, warning that a violent person
will also die by violence. Taoism advocates for the imperative to respect the
essence of the nature of things, the intrinsic and constantly changing laws of
nature. It promotes the idea of "acting by not acting" (wu wei)
or acting with a minimum of interference but with firm will and a moral sense. Mozi
and the philosophy of Mohism can be considered a precursor to modern philosophy
and political ethics. It is characterized by: The belief in equality before God
and an ethic of universal love. Opposition to militarism and a defense of
pacifism. A critique of waste and luxury. A defense of a centralized state
governed by virtue, a benevolent sovereign, and a court chosen by merit. Mozi’s
philosophy also emphasizes the duty of rulers and citizens to choose a pious
and frugal model of personal and social life, devoid of ambition for hegemony
or absolute power. He advocates for an epistemology of practical knowledge.
These principles and philosophies are
recognizable in the San Min Chu I Doctrine[1].
Sun Yat-sen's program for a New China was supported by the unique feature of
Chinese political philosophy: the great ideal of peace. While Sun Yat-sen did
not forget the ideals of the Western revolutions, he criticized the duplicity
of the Western concept of democracy: liberal democracy for the peoples of
imperialist countries, while sub-colonial status was imposed on countries
forced to be incorporated into modern empires. The path of peace is also
reflected in the political principles of the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, which were articulated by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. These
principles were integrated into the preamble of the Constitution of the
People's Republic of China and were adopted by the Non-Aligned Movement during
the height of the Cold War. "Safeguarding world peace" is also one of
the three historic tasks of China stemming from Deng Xiaoping's vision of
Reform and Opening Up.
These principles are now reflected in Shanghai
Cooperation Organization (SCO), BRICS, the Belt and Road Initiative, and are
present in all of China's international agreements. These include: The Global
Development Initiative (GDI), proposed by China at the United Nations Assembly
in 2021 to help achieve the UN's 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The
GDI addresses global challenges such as pandemics and regional conflicts with a
strong contribution from China in all critical areas, from health to the green
transition. The Global Security Initiative for Peace and the Principle of
Indivisible Security. The Global Civilization Initiative…
The
evolution of political economy as a key to determining different periods
of
environmental evolution
We can delineate four
distinct periods related to China's economic development model between 1949 and
2016-…, and identify the key factors of China's environmental policy
1949-1976.
This period involved agrarian reform, agricultural extension, the
industrialization of agriculture, and the development of basic infrastructure
and supporting industries. The United Nations
1972 Stockholm Conference.
1976-2005.
China experienced a period of "Opening Up and Reform," prioritizing
economic and urban growth, as well as energy and technological development.
This was fueled by coal and the relocation of polluting industries from the
West to China, along with the recycling of their goods. The "Green Wall of China" and the
First Protection Laws. Sustainable development was recognized as a scientific concept of
development at the 16th CPC National Congress in 2003.
2005-2015. The period of
transition to ecological economy, ecological socialist society. Beautiful China
and Chinese Dream. "Green GDP". President Hu Jintao declared the goal
of building an ecological civilization at the 17th CPC National Congress in
2007. The Ministry of Environmental Protection was created. Environmental
philosophy is incorporated into the Party's Statute. At the initiative of
President Xi Jinping, the concept of "building an ecological
civilization" was added to the Constitution at the 18th CPC Congress in
2012. In 2013, President Xi stated, "We will never again pursue economic
growth at the expense of the environment." The dawn of Ecocivilization.
2016-...
In the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020), ecological development became one of
the five core principles of development. Pilot-projects of eco-civilization.
The case study of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.
The evolution and resolution of
China's environmental crisis
1949-1976. This period involved agrarian reform,
agricultural extension, the industrialization of agriculture, and the
development of basic infrastructure and supporting industries. The United
Nations 1972 Stockholm Conference.
The China's agrarian reform, which began in 1947, land
ownership was distributed to 350,000 peasants, but it didn't completely exclude
wealthy farmers and large landowning families, who were permitted to continue
cultivating their own land. This reform aimed to address the widespread hunger
and industrial raw material shortages caused by the Japanese invasion[2].
It also sought to build a foundation for food security and spurred the initial
growth of rural cooperatives.
The agrarian reform and subsequent population increase
led to a new wave of deforestation. As a feudal regime, China's imperial past
had already caused significant devastation to natural forests, but this new
period intensified the problem. In the southwestern province of Yunnan, home to
China's greatest biological and ethnic diversity, half of the forest cover was
lost to new industrial plantations for crops like tobacco and rubber. This
illustrates the complex trade-offs between agricultural reform, population
growth, and environmental degradation in China's modern history. China's massive dam construction projects have significantly reshaped the
country's landscape and infrastructure. These projects, built for energy
production and irrigation, have also had profound social and environmental
consequences.
Dam Construction Across China
In the Mekong River Basin, a cascade of dams was
constructed, impacting not just China (Yunnan) but also neighboring countries
like Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar. This project involved relocating
half a million people and required a network of new roads, railways, and
airports built through ancient forests and mountains. Similarly, on the Jinsha
River (the source of the Yangtze), thirteen dams were built in the same region.
In the northwestern province of Henan, the cradle of Chinese civilization, dam
construction was particularly focused on combating deadly floods from the
Yellow and Huai Rivers. Over half of China's 110,000 dams were built here in
1958 alone. Unfortunately, these early projects, often pioneered by poorly
skilled local communes, had significant structural flaws, an astonishing number
that highlights the country's commitment to large-scale infrastructure and its
mixed legacy of progress and environmental disruption.
Following China's period of opening and reform, the
country saw a rapid increase in polluting industries and coal mines. These
industries, primarily foundries and high-energy chemical plants, were
strategically located near cheap energy sources. This concentration of industry
required the construction of coal-fired power plants and new mines to ensure a
consistent energy supply, even during dry seasons when hydroelectric power
might be limited.
The Environmental and Social Cost of Coal
By the second half of the 20th century, the province
of Shanxi was producing a third of China's coal. This extensive mining came at
a significant cost. The environmental damage was immense, and landslides caused
by mining affected approximately one million people. The mining also threatened
cultural heritage sites, such as the ancient Yungang Caves, a UNESCO World
Heritage site and an important Buddhist cave shrine. Shanxi, along with
neighboring and Inner Mongolia, employs the majority of China's 5.2 million
miners, underscoring the central role of coal in the nation's economy and the
enduring social and environmental challenges it presents.
China is a land of striking contrasts. While it
grapples with a vast expanse of deserts and arid lands, it also holds an
extraordinary wealth of biodiversity.
The Environmental Challenge
China's landscape includes 1.67 million square
kilometers of deserts, arid lands, and wastelands, primarily in the northwest.
This vast dry region stretches across provinces like Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia,
Inner Mongolia, and Shaanxi. For centuries, the Yellow River (Huanghe), a
cradle of Chinese civilization, has been heavily impacted by human activity.
Five millennia of deforestation have transformed it into a muddy waterway, and
the nearby Loess Plateau contributes to a constant flow of dust that sweeps across
the country, affecting cities and villages all the way to Beijing.
The Unrivaled Biodiversity
Despite these environmental challenges, China's
natural heritage is immense. The country is home to half of the Northern
Hemisphere's total biodiversity. To put this in perspective, the single
province of Sichuan has more biodiversity than all North America. This rich
natural world exists in a nation that was still predominantly rural in 1980,
with only about 100 million urban citizens at the time of the census.
By the late 1950s, China found itself unable to rely
on technological support from the USSR, as it refused to align with the Soviet
Union's "social imperialism." This led China to pursue the
development of its own modern military technology.
Military and Technological
Advancement
Under the leadership of Marshal Nie Rongzhen, China
embarked on a comprehensive national development plan focused on military
self-sufficiency. This included the successful nuclear weapons program, which
culminated in the detonation of its first atomic bomb in 1964. China also
initiated the construction of nuclear submarines capable of launching ballistic
missiles (1958) and heavily promoted aerospace research during the 1960s and
1970s.
Environmental Consequences
This military-driven industrial push had significant environmental side effects. For strategic reasons—particularly the risk of war with the USSR—factories and other facilities were relocated to remote regions. This rapid and often unregulated industrialization created new pockets of pollution and caused environmental imbalances in previously pristine areas.
The Yellow River's
Environmental Crisis
The Yellow River (Huanghe), a vital resource for
China, has been pushed to its limits by human activity. The intensive use of
the river's water, with 90% diverted for agriculture to feed 190 million
people, along with the growing demand from cities, has had severe consequences.
Dams and breaks in the riverbanks have disrupted sediment flow, leading to
devastating floods that change its course. In 1977, the river failed to reach
the Bohai Sea for 227 days, a clear sign of its overexploitation. Furthermore,
pollution has become a major issue, contaminating the drinking water for over
600 cities and compromising the quality of agricultural products.
Combating Sandstorms
Between the 1950s and 1990s, China experienced a
period of severe sandstorms, similar to those that affected the U.S. in the
1930s and the USSR in the 1940s. These storms created large numbers of
"environmental refugees" and prompted a national effort to contain
the spread of deserts. As a primary response, the government initiated the
massive planting of trees to create shelterbelts, or forest blinds, in areas
threatened by desertification.
Glacial Retreat and
Infrastructure Development
China is home to the world's largest concentration of
glaciers, with 46,000 glaciers forming the core of the "Third Pole."
In the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, glaciers between the Altai and Tian
Shan mountains to the north and the Pamir and Kulun ranges to the south receded
by 60 meters between 1960 and 2000. This dramatic retreat serves as undeniable
evidence of the effects of global warming.
Despite these environmental challenges, China's engineering feats continued. During this period, the road to Lhasa was completed, along with the first section of the railway on the Tibetan Plateau (1974), connecting Xining to Golmud. These two projects were considered impossible due to the extreme conditions of the region, demonstrating China's determination to overcome geographical barriers.
The 1972 UN Stockholm
Conference on the Human Environment
The 1972 Stockholm
Conference on the Human Environment, promoted by United Nations and held in
Stockholm, Sweden, is a landmark event in environmental history. It was the first
international conference that recognized the environmental crisis. Stockholm Declaration document outlined 26
principles that affirmed the right to a healthy environment and the
responsibility of nations to protect natural resources. It was a foundational
step toward global environmental ethics. The conference led to the creation of the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and produced an action plan with 109
recommendations for international environmental action, covering issues like
marine pollution, resource management, and environmental education. China attended the conference with a delegation led
by Tang Ke, then Vice-Minister of Fuel and Chemical Industries. This was the
People's Republic of China's first major appearance at an UN-sponsored
international conference since regaining its seat at the UN in 1971. China's
participation was not merely symbolic; it was an opportunity to present its own
worldview.
A "Two-Line
Struggle": China's delegation framed the environmental crisis as a result
of the "two-line struggle"—the ideological conflict between
capitalism and socialism. They argued that environmental degradation in
capitalist nations was caused by "monopoly capitalism," which
prioritized profit over environmental protection. In contrast, they claimed
that socialist countries had a natural advantage in harmonizing economic
development with environmental goals.
Anti-Imperialist Stance:
The Chinese delegation also used the platform to express solidarity with
developing nations and to critique developed countries for creating
environmental problems. They argued that developed nations had a historical
responsibility for global pollution and should be the ones to bear the costs of
cleanup. They also voiced concerns about the environmental impact of war and
imperialism.
Sovereignty and
Development: While acknowledging the need for environmental protection, China
stressed the principle of national sovereignty. It argued that each country
should have the right to formulate its own environmental policies without
interference. This position resonated with many developing nations that feared
environmental regulations would hinder their economic growth.
Advocacy for a New
International Order: China called for a new international economic order based
on equality and mutual benefit, where developing countries would not be forced
to sacrifice their development for environmental reasons. This stance,
supported by the Non-Allied Countries, was influential in shaping the
conference's final declaration.
The 1972 Stockholm
Conference was deeply shaped by a philosophy of nature that emerged in the 20th
century. This new way of thinking, which drew on universal principles found in
classical Chinese thought, was a direct critique of anthropocentrism (the belief
that humans are the most important entity) and ethnocentrism. The conference
articulated a vision of a "planetary community" based on the idea
that "there is only one Earth," our "common home," and
emphasized the ethical imperative for human "loyalty" to the planet.
Political Critique of
Global Inequality
Beyond its philosophical
principles, the conference's main report offered a sharp political critique of
the global order established by modern capitalism. It pointed to the:
...tragic and growing divisions between the rich in the North and the
miserable in the South, whose origins lie in the political transformations of
the 19th century, with the consolidation of nationalities, the expansion of
colonial empires and the division of the world." (Dubos, R and Ward, B.,
1972, p. 338)
The report argued that fair
and environmentally sound management of the planet's biosphere, coupled with
peaceful solutions, was not just an ideal but a necessary condition for the
long-term survival of humanity. In essence, the conference linked environmental
health directly to global social and political justice.
Long-Term Impact
China's participation at
Stockholm was a crucial step in its re-engagement with the international
community. While its ideological rhetoric might have seemed out of place to
some, it helped to formalize the link between environmental issues, economic
development, and international justice. By positioning itself as a leader of
the developing world, China began to assert a diplomatic influence that would
grow in the decades to follow.
1976-2005. China
experienced a period of "Opening Up and Reform," prioritizing
economic and urban growth, as well as energy and technological development.
This was fueled by coal and the relocation of polluting industries from the
West to China, along with the recycling of their goods. The "Green Wall of China" and the First
Protection Laws. Sustainable development was recognized as a scientific
concept of development at the 16th CPC National Congress in 2003.
The Great Green Wall,
also known as the "Green Wall of China," is an ambitious, large-scale
reforestation project in China designed to combat desertification and the
expansion of the Gobi Desert. Launched in 1978, the project involves planting billions
of trees across a vast area that stretches over 4,500 kilometers from
Heilongjiang province in the northeast to Xinjiang province in the west, a
massive project with a long-term goal of completion by 2050. Beyond combating
desertification, the initiative aimed to serve as a massive carbon sink. The
government promoted citizen participation by establishing March 12 as National
Tree Planting Day, encouraging every Chinese citizen to plant 3 to 5 trees
annually. This mobilization has contributed to increasing the country's forest
cover by 66,000 hectares per year. Primary Objectives:
Combat Desertification:
Planting trees helps to anchor the soil, reduce erosion, and limit the spread
of sand dunes. Improve Air Quality: Trees act as natural barriers against
sandstorms that frequently affect major Chinese cities, including Beijing. Protect
Agricultural Land: By containing the desert's advance, the project helps
safeguard fertile land and ensure the food security of the population. Restore
Biodiversity: In the long term, the "Great Green Wall" is a
pioneering international project because it goes beyond the conservation of
existing biotopes and aims at the recovery of ecosystems. During its period of economic reform, China's
southeastern province of Guangdong became a primary destination for foreign
investment starting in 1978. These investments, often in the form of joint
ventures, attracted entrepreneurs from the Chinese diaspora. Although these
local partners initially held a subordinate position, receiving less than a
quarter of the profits, their local economies saw explosive growth, sometimes
by more than 100 times.
The Relocation of
Polluting Industries
As China opened up, many
Western and Asian countries sought to offload their environmentally intensive
industries. Major corporations from Europe, America, and the Asian
"tigers" used shell companies based in places like Singapore and Hong
Kong to sidestep their own environmental regulations. As a result, China became
a global hub for a wide range of polluting activities. For example, plastics
were sent to places like Shunde and Heshan for recycling, paper to Dongguan,
and old, toxic electronics were dismantled in Guyu and Qiungyuan. This shift
allowed developed countries to transfer their dirty industries, while
simultaneously positioning themselves as leaders in clean environmental
practices back home.
Widespread Industrial
and Social Impacts.
This rapid industrialization was not without its problems. The proliferation of factories and new industrial zones sparked numerous protests from farmers who had their land expropriated. The rise of new wealth also fueled corruption and the illegal trade of endangered species.
The industrial boom spread from Guangdong up the Chinese coast to provinces like Jiangsu and Hebei. Here, old and polluting furnaces from Germany's Ruhr region were dismantled and reassembled, allowing shareholders to profit from the relocation while transferring their carbon and pollution emissions. Similarly, countries like Japan, the U.S., and Europe transferred the production of yellow phosphorus—a highly polluting process—to regions in Sichuan province, such as Panzhihua and Zhaotong, despite the region's significant environmental heritage. The economic transformation also saw the birth of enormous retail hubs. In Zhejiang province, what were once small rural communities like Yiwu transformed into massive marketplaces, essentially "cities of shops." The factories supporting this growth required intense labor and produced foul smells and high pollution, but their low investment cost and high returns made them attractive for foreign companies shutting down similar operations in Germany, the U.S., Italy, Japan, and South Korea. In addition, provinces like Henan became home to new landfills, chemical factories, and tanneries, further concentrating the environmental burden.
The First River Protection Law was enacted to clean up the Huai, environmental controls were introduced, and dozens of factories were closed. According to the Center for International Climate and Environmental Research in Oslo, 9% of China's greenhouse gas emissions are related to exporrts to the US and 6% to Europe. Between 1999 and 2009, annual recycled paper exports from the UK to India, Indonesia and China increased from 470,000 tons to 4.7 million tons. Plastic bottle shipments increased from 40,000 tons to half a million!
The Role of the Himalayas and Government Response
The Himalayas and Kunlun Mountains are a critical
part of the regional climate system. They act as "convectors,"
pushing vast masses of hot, polluted air—much of it originating from India into
the stratosphere. This process reduces precipitation in China's arid regions,
leading to water shortages. In response to these complex environmental
challenges, the Chinese government has introduced stricter controls on logging
and mining companies. The People's Republic of China also launched an extensive
plan of 160 ecological projects, with a total value of approximately 7 billion
euros, to combat these issues.
From these facts, in the early 1980s, the improvement of living
conditions in Tibet and the liberalization of the size allowed to the herds of
nomadic pastoralists led to an uncontrolled growth of grazing in the face of
available natural resources, transforming meadows into deserts, forcing the
displacement and reintegration into other activities of more than half of the
2.5 million nomads, in what has become a local critical factor of rising
temperatures with consequences for all of China an neighboring countries. In
the context of global warming, the mountains of the Himalayas and the Kunlun,
loaded with steam and air heaters, act as convectors that expel to the
stratosphere large masses of air that previously produced rain and snow,
causing a shortage of precipitation in other arid regions of China and,
receiving the pollution that comes mainly from India, spreading it throughout
the region.
In response, the government of the People's
Republic of China, presented 160 projects of ecological character with a value
of round 7 billion euros, after the establishment of strong restrictions on the
cutting of trees and environmental control of mining companies, the first River
Protection Law was enacted to clean up the Huai, environmental controls were
introduced, and dozens of factories were closed.
Environmental Policies and Their
Impact. Wildlife Protection and Conservation
Advancing Environmental Policy and
Awareness
In 1992, China became a signatory to the Ramsar
Convention for the protection of wetlands. The following year, it created the Sangjiang
Reserve in Heilongjiang Province, the country's first and largest national
wetland reserve at 25,000 hectares. This reserve became a model for wetland
management and a symbol for China's growing environmental movement. The period
saw an ideological shift within the Communist Party of China (CPC) and other
democratic parties toward a new model called "ecological socialism." A
key figure in this movement was Ma Zhong, who was appointed Director of the
Environment Department at Renmin University in Beijing, a university known for
shaping China's future elite.
By 1995, environmental protection became a more
formalized part of the government structure. The National People's Assembly
established its Committee on Environmental Protection, and even the armed
forces recognized environmental protection as part of their mission. The State
Environmental Protection Agency gained significant political authority,
empowered to halt economic projects valued at over one hundred billion renminbi
in highly polluted areas. The government also began promoting the role of NGOs and
mobilizing the media to raise public awareness. It is a crucial period that
prepares and begins the internal ideological struggle within the CPC and the
democratic parties, across the organs of power and consultation of the state,
the media, in favor of a new model of socialist society that would be called
"ecological socialism".
The environmental protests conducted in 2005,
against the request of land for the polluting industries and against their
operation and installation, recorded in that year of turning more than 5,000
mass incidents, more than 128,000 disputes and more than half a million letters
and complaints to the authorities.
The inauguration of the Three Gorges Dam in Hebei
was not only the celebration of a remarkable feat of engineering that made the
dreams of progress of Sun Yat-Sen and Mao Zedong come true, but also led to a
nationwide debate so vast and complex about its environmental impact that it
divided the National People's Congress itself, where a third of the elected
members voted against approving its construction. In addition to the cost of
relocating more than 1.5 million people and submerging a vast cultural heritage,
the debate continued in the national press as the water filled the giant
reservoir, causing landslides and giant waves, increasing the accumulation of
waste and algae, and seriously damaging the water quality of nearly 200 cities.
Xinjiang's Uyghur Autonomous Region holds
one-third of China's oil and gas reserves and the largest untapped coal
reserves. The sandstorms have advanced by uniting two deserts, the Tuklaman and
the Kum Tag. On the contrary, the glaciers retreated and split, like Urumqi No.
1 (in 1993). The clouds of soot coming from the smokestacks of developing
countries, the burning of forests and diesel engines, known as black carbon,
arrived here in force and decolored the great masses of ice.
In Xinjiang, the political and economic
orientation then was to restore environmental balance and promote sustainable
development: thermoelectric power plants adopted clean coal technology. The
capital, Urumqi, promoted the creation of a vast ecological park, and plans
were developed to capture the water flowing down from the glaciers.
The Chinese prime minister sent to the region to
represent the new policy, the same people who had been the minister of water
and energy conservation, Quan Zhengying, responsible for major works such as
the 3 Gorges Dam, now with a new discourse on environmental sustainability: It
was necessary to put an end to the indiscriminate consumption of water by
industrialized agriculture, which was depleting resources, and to persuade
farmers to convert their activities, with state support for their relocation.
China’s commitment to environmental protection
was further formalized with the Wildlife Protection Law of 1998. The law
focused on captive breeding of endangered species rather than solely on habitat
conservation. To deter illegal wildlife trade, the law imposed severe
penalties, with media reports highlighting over thirty executions for the
trafficking or killing of elephants and giant pandas.
The "Develop West" program, launched in
2000 and covering 79% of China's territory and 30% of its population, promoted
a second line of international and central investment in the provinces of
Gansu, Guizhou, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan, and the autonomous
regions of Ningxia, Tibet, Xinjiang, Guangxi, and the Chongqing Municipality,
bordering ten nations.
The "Revitalizing the Northeast"
program, launched in 2003 and covering the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and
Liaoning, sought to resolve the institutional and social crisis resulting from the
closure of obsolete industries by supporting the equipment and pharmaceutical
supply industries, forestry, the country's largest grain production, and the
supply of raw materials for the energy sector.
Launched in 2004, the "Rise of Central
China" program, which covers 10.7% of the country's territory and 19.5% of
its population, including the provinces of Shanxi, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and
Anhui, aimed to strengthen the role of this area as one of the bases of the
country's grain production and common communication and transportation linking
all of China, a clean carbon production center and raw materials.
2005-2015. The period of
transition to ecological economy, ecological socialist society. Beautiful China
and Chinese Dream. "Green GDP". President Hu Jintao
declared the goal of building an ecological civilization at the 17th CPC
National Congress in 2007. The Ministry of
Environmental Protection was created. Environmental philosophy is incorporated
into the Party's Statute. At the initiative of
President Xi Jinping, the concept of "building an ecological
civilization" was added to the Constitution at the 18th CPC Congress in
2012. In 2013, President Xi stated, "We will never again pursue economic
growth at the expense of the environment." The
dawn of Ecocivilization.
China is dealing with the immense challenge of
feeding 20% of the world's population using only 10% of its arable land. This
problem was made worse in the 1990s when the country lost 25,000 square
kilometers of this land. Over half of this loss was due to the expansion of
industrial and urban areas.
To address the shortfall, China has increasingly
relied on genetically modified (GM) crops and hybrids. However, the most
significant threat to the country's food security and environment is the
widespread pollution of its coastal waters. This pollution not only impacts on
marine life but also has broader consequences for the food chain and human health.
In 2005, the coal-rich province of Shanxi alone suffered more than €4 billion
in environmental damage. Despite this, China's energy consumption surged. Between
2005 and 2008, the country opened two new power plants with a capacity of 600
MW every single week. This rapid expansion, largely fueled by coal, contributed
to China surpassing the United States as the world's largest emitter of
greenhouse gases in 2007. Whether China is the main source of air pollution
depends on how you measure it. It's not accurate to say it's the primary
historical source. The debate often comes down to two keyways of looking at the
data: historical responsibility and per-capita emissions.
Historical Responsibility
Looking at historical emissions, countries that
industrialized earlier bear greater responsibility. The United States and
Europe were the primary polluters for over a century, contributing the largest
share of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere long before China's rapid
industrialization.
Per-Capita Emissions
On a per-person basis, emissions in developed
countries are typically much higher. While China's overall emissions are now
the world's largest, its per-capita emissions are still significantly lower
than those of countries like the United States and some nations in the Middle
East. This perspective highlights that a smaller number of people in developed
nations consume far more resources and contribute more to pollution on an
individual level. Countries in the European Union have also historically contributed
far more than either China or India.
The data is sourced from EU data (Global Watch). Looking
at per-capita emissions, the picture changes again. Arab countries, the U.S.,
and Germany are at the top of the list, while countries like India have made a
very small contribution to global warming per person. The data from sources
like the EU's Global Watch supports this view.
In
response to widespread pollution, authorities initiated a crackdown, shutting
down illegal mines and highly polluting factories throughout the country.
In Shandong Province, the birthplace of
Confucius, ancient traditions have given way to modern science. The prayers
once offered for fertility on the sacred Mount Tai are now a subject for the
advanced research at its Agronomy University. The university is a hub for
biotechnology, focusing on the genetic improvement of crops. This approach,
while controversial, now impacts over half of China's agricultural production
of wheat, rice, and soybeans.
Water, Infrastructure, and
Agriculture
China has made monumental investments in water
management and infrastructure. By late 2009, its irrigated land reached 877
million hectares, making up one-fifth of the world's total and ranking it first
globally. By 2010, China's hydropower capacity had reached 721 billion KWHs per
year. The same year, the country had built 413 major ports, some with a
handling capacity of over 500 million tons. By 2012, the country had 87,000
reservoirs with a total capacity of 240 billion cubic meters, supplying 37% of
the nation's water.
In northern China, from the Beijing area to
Henan, Hebei, and Shandong, vast plains are now covered with genetically
modified poplar and other hybrid trees. This "industrial forest" is
the result of work by centers like the Linyi Center for Experimental
Agriculture. This fast-growing timber is crucial for wood production, crop
protection, and acting as a carbon sink, significantly reducing China's
dependence on timber imports. However, this has also sparked a debate within
academia, with some advocating for a return to traditional fertilization
techniques and the adoption of organic farming practices.
China's Urbanization and
Environmental Strategy
Between 1986 and 2000, over 12,000 square
kilometers of China's arable land was converted for urban use. To address the
needs of a rapidly growing middle class and ensure food security for the 850
million people lifted out of poverty by 2020, the government of the People's
Republic of China (PRC) developed a national urbanization plan. The plan's main
goals were to accommodate the 400 million migrants moving to cities and to
reduce environmental pressure. The strategy involved several key actions:
_ Low-Carbon Urbanization: Cities would be transformed into low-carbon
consumption models, incorporating green spaces and restoring architectural
heritage.
_ Restricted Construction: To protect key ecosystems, new construction
would be stopped in river headwaters, in forests that serve as a barrier
against deserts, and along the coastline.
This period was a critical turning point as
several provinces began experimenting with calculating "Green GDP", a
measure of economic output that subtracts environmental costs. This marked a
significant shift, with provinces and cities taking the initiative to
transition towards a more sustainable, ecological economy.
The dawn of Ecocivilization
The concept of "Ecocivilization" represents a significant shift in China's development philosophy. Introduced at the 17th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 2007, it was elevated to a core policy at the 18th Congress in 2012, where an entire chapter was dedicated to it. This concept is a profound rethinking of traditional industrial civilization.
Key Principles of Ecocivilization:
_ Ecocivilization is an ethical, cultural, and institutional framework
that aims for human society to develop in harmony with nature. Its key
principles include:
_ Interdependence and Symbiosis: It emphasizes the interconnectedness of
human and natural systems.
_ Consciousness and Self-Regulation: It relies on human self-awareness
and control to manage interactions with the environment.
_ Holistic Integration: It is meant to be integrated into all aspects of
development—economic, political, cultural, and social—with the ultimate goal of
building a "beautiful China."
_ Resource Conservation: This is a fundamental
state policy, focusing on the saving, protection, and rehabilitation of
resources, as well as promoting green, circular, and low-carbon development.
This ideological leap from "Eco-City" to
"Ecocivilization" reflects a maturing environmental policy.
Implementing the Vision of Beautiful
China
China has put this vision into practice through
various programs and pilot projects:
_ Eco-Garden City Program: Led by the Ministry of Housing and
Urban-Rural Development (MHURD), this program began in 1992. By 2008, 125
cities had been officially designated as "Eco-Garden Cities." The
program's criteria evolved to emphasize "three savings" (land, water,
and finance) and "four reductions" (urban heat island effect,
pollution, and energy consumption in buildings and transport).
_ Local Eco-District Construction: Local governments have also built
their own eco-districts in major cities like Beijing, Tianjin, Tangshan, and
Shanghai, showcasing practical, on-the-ground efforts to achieve Ecocivilization.
_ Ecological Development Demonstration Pilot Areas: Under the Ministry
of Education (MoE) and the State Environmental Protection Administration
(SEPA), 389 cities, counties, and districts were designated as pilot units by
2008. These programs aim to create models for sustainable development.
These programs and policies demonstrate China's
commitment to shifting from a growth-at-all-costs model to one that integrates
environmental protection as a core element of its national strategy.
Environmental philosophy incorporated into the Party's
Statute
At the 18th National Congress of the Communist
Party of China (CPC) in 2012, environmental philosophy was officially
incorporated into the Party's Statute. This new commitment mandated that the
Party "strive to build a resource-saving, environment-friendly
society" by protecting China's land, improving its industrial and
production methods, and promoting a more sustainable way of life. The ultimate
goal was to create a better living environment for citizens and ensure
"sound and sustainable development."
"Beautiful China" and the
"Chinese Dream"
This ideological shift had a rapid and widespread
impact. The Ministry of Environment established a CPC School to train officials
on environmental issues under the slogan "Beautiful China," a concept
that mobilized all Chinese society. The new policies were formalized at the
12th National People's Congress and the 12th Chinese People's Political
Consultative Conference, which set the stage for major reforms.
This new environmental focus became a key
component of the "Chinese Dream," a political slogan launched at the
third plenary session of the 18th CPC in 2012. Positioned as an alternative to
the "American Dream," the Chinese Dream is about realizing the great
revival of the Chinese nation. It is defined as "the people's dream,"
focusing on creating benefits for the people through better education,
employment, income, social security, healthcare, housing, and a "better environment."
The dream also emphasizes peaceful international development and a rejection of
global dominance.
Implementation of Key Policies
The strategic vision was quickly put into action.
On November 8, 2013, the joint declaration on innovation-driven development for
national high-tech zones was released in Wuhan. In 2016, the central government
approved a plan to create national ecological civilization pilot zones in
Fujian Province, demonstrating a high-level commitment to testing and
implementing these environmental principles at a provincial scale.
2016-... In the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020),
ecological development became one of the five core principles of development. Pilot
projects of Ecocivilization. The case study of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.
In China's approach to the global environmental
crisis, a central philosophical argument posits that the root cause lies in the
capitalist system. According to Pan Yue, a key figure in China's environmental
policy, the crisis has become a new way for developed nations to transfer
economic problems. His perspective is rooted in the belief that "the rich
consume, the poor suffer pollution."
China's Modernization and Environmental
Responsibility
Pan Yue has argued against the idea of China as the
world's primary polluter by pointing to the historical context of its
development. He notes that first China's economic modernization was a direct
imitation of the Western model, which prioritizes economic growth and often
disregards environmental costs. In response to
criticism of China as the world's leading polluter, Pan Yue pointed out that
China's push for modernization was firstly modeled on Western principles.
"Sustainable
development is generally defined as economic growth, environmental protection
and social justice. Social justice is a core concept of sustainable development
and a core goal of socialism. So, in theory, socialism is more suitable than capitalism
for realizing sustainable development. But China's environmental crisis has
arisen basically because our mode of economic modernization has been copied
from Western developed countries." Yue,
P. (2006)
He highlights the fact that developed countries,
with just 15% of the global population, consume over 85% of the world's
resources. These nations have raised their own environmental standards but
simultaneously exported resource-intensive and polluting industries to
developing countries, thereby avoiding environmental responsibility.
A New Path: Ecological Civilization
"The rich consume, the poor suffer
pollution," is a concise way of summarizing the core argument that global
environmental inequality is directly tied to economic inequality. The Rich
Consume: Developed nations and wealthy individuals have historically consumed
the majority of the world's resources and are responsible for the largest share
of greenhouse gas emissions, both historically and on a per-capita basis. This
high level of consumption is what drives a demand for goods, many of which are
produced in other countries.
The Poor Suffer Pollution: Developing nations, often
with fewer environmental regulations, are the ones that take on the polluting
industries relocated from wealthier countries. As a result, the local
populations bear the direct consequences of this pollution, including health
problems, water contamination, and land degradation, even though they have
contributed far less to the global problem. China concluded that it could not
follow the traditional Western industrial model. As a socialist country, it
aims to avoid "environmental colonialism" or hegemonic behavior. From
this perspective, the solution is to create a new type of civilization—an
"ecological civilization"—that draws on the wisdom of traditional
Chinese thought, which emphasizes harmony between humanity and nature. The text
of Yue concludes by criticizing modern global capitalism, where large
monopolies prioritize shareholder profits over all else. The damage to the
environment is socialized, meaning the public pays the cost, while profits are
privatized.
The critical contradiction of Global Capitalism
Pan Yue argues that the concentration of capital has
led to the rise of massive national and international monopolies. In this
system, corporate leaders prioritize profits for shareholders above all else,
often losing their sense of loyalty to their home countries. This leads to a
situation where environmental damage is socialized (the public bears the cost)
while profits are privatized (corporations keep the benefits). Pan Yue
questions whether a true harmony between humanity and nature is possible within
this competitive, profit-driven global system.
Pan Yue's thought represents the emergence of a new
social consciousness among Party officials and signals a change coming from the
vast majority of the Chinese people. His is a cosmovision that differs from the Western perspective.
From the perspective of political philosophy,
Chinese thought inquiries into the fundamental causes of the worsening
environmental crisis. What is the political root of this tragic problem?
"The root cause is the capitalist system. The
environmental crisis has become a new means of transferring the economic
crisis," Pan Yue stated.
Consequently, he argued:
"The
green movement (in the West) arose from a re-evaluation of Western industrial
civilization. Although the Reformation, the Renaissance, and the Industrial
Revolution all contributed to the birth of Western industrial civilization, the
root cause was colonialism."
In response to those who criticized China's
socialism as the world's first instance of pollution, Pan wrote:
"You
must remember that China's modernization drive was based on Western logic:
Sustainable development is commonly defined as economic growth, environmental
protection, and social justice. Social justice is a core concept of sustainable
development and a core goal of socialism. So, in theory, socialism is better
suited to achieving sustainable development than capitalism. However, China's
environmental crisis has arisen fundamentally because our model of economic
modernization was copied from Western developed countries." [1]
In the following paragraphs, Pan Yue provides a
synthesis of the Chinese cultural tradition on environmental ethics.
Chinese
civilization has not been able to keep up with the pace of industrial
civilization, but its essence meets the internal requirements of an ecological
civilization. Ecological ethics has always been an important part of
traditional Chinese culture, which allows us to reflect on and transcend the
material-oriented civilization that has guided humanity since the Renaissance
in the 14th century.". [2]
The evolution of China's political thought has led
to a new approach to governance, combining socialist principles with
environmental ethics. This shift is particularly evident in the concept of
"Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era."
A historical addendum to the Constitution and CPC
Program
An important addendum was made to the Constitution
and the Communist Party of China (CPC) Program at the 18th Congress in 2012,
which formally integrated the concepts of Ecological Civilization and
environmental protection into the Party's core ideology. This marked a
significant shift in national policy.
Key Changes and Impact
Elevated Status: Ecological civilization became one
of the five national development goals, placing it on par with economic,
political, cultural, and social development.
Legal and Political Authority: This change gave
environmental policies a stronger legal and political backing. It empowered
government bodies and officials, like Pan Yue, to enforce environmental
regulations more effectively and hold polluters accountable.
Long-Term Vision: The addendum laid the ideological
groundwork for a new, sustainable development model, emphasizing resource
conservation, green growth, and a focus on long-term ecological balance rather
than just short-term economic gains.
This historical change reflects a recognition within
the Chinese leadership that rapid industrialization had created unsustainable
environmental problems, and a new, more holistic approach was necessary for the
nation's future. These changes formally integrated a philosophy of Ecological
Socialism and Ecocivilization into the core of China's governance. This marked
a major step for the nation, which operates as a "people's democracy"
through its key political organs, the National People's Congress (NPC) and the
Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).
The 18th Party Congress elevated ecological
civilization to one of the country's five primary national development goals.
It emphasized a new model for rural development focused on a three-pronged
approach: "ecology, productivity, and livability." This new direction
signifies a commitment to creating a sustainable society that balances economic
growth with environmental protection and a high quality of life for its
citizens. In Chinese political thought, the concepts of the
"Two Centenarians" and the "Four Comprehensives" are
central to the nation's development plan. These ideas build on the legacy of
Deng Xiaoping, who defined the first stage of socialism with Chinese
characteristics. Deng's vision included three historic tasks: peaceful national
reunification under "one country, two systems," safeguarding world
peace, and promoting global development.
The "Two Centenarians"
Xi Jinping expanded on this by theorizing two key
milestones: First Centenary (2021): The 100th anniversary of the founding of
the Communist Party of China (CPC), with the goal of building a moderately
prosperous society. Second Centenary (2049): The 100th anniversary of the
founding of the People's Republic of China, with the aim of building a modern
socialist country across all regions and for all 56 of China's ethnic groups.
The CPC's membership has grown steadily, reaching 94
million members. The members of the Youth Communist, 78 million. Additionally,
the eight democratic parties of the People's Front have a combined membership
of over 1.09 million. The ratio of CPC members to the general population is
approximately 1 to 12, which is significantly higher than that of major
political parties in other countries. For example, in Portugal, the Socialist
Party (PS) has a ratio of 1 to 94, and the Social Democratic Party (PSD) has a
ratio of 1 to 127.
The "Four Comprehensives"
Xi Jinping's blueprint for China's future,
introduced in late 2014, is known as the "Four Comprehensives". These
are four ethical-political imperatives aimed at strengthening the Party and the
State: Comprehensively build a moderately prosperous society, ensuring the
eradication of poverty. Comprehensively deepen reform and opening up.
Comprehensively advance the rule of law. Comprehensively strengthen Party
discipline, particularly through the fight against corruption, popularized by
slogans like "Hunting the Tigers" (targeting senior officials),
"Crushing the Flies" (targeting low-level officials), and
"Capturing the Foxes" (targeting corrupt officials who have fled
abroad).
Environmental Directives
The environmental crisis, a byproduct of modern
development, has led to a new wave of reforms in China. These are guided by two
key directives: "Beautiful China" and the "Chinese Dream."
These slogans are designed to mobilize and raise the environmental awareness of
all Chinese citizens. Fujian Province has been chosen as a
pilot zone for the demonstration of ecological civilization at the provincial
level, with other pilot projects located in Jiangxi, Yunnan, Qinghai, Guizhou,
and the Xinjiang Autonomous Region. In 2017, China announced new plans to establish
green finance pilot zones in several regions, including Guangdong, Guizhou,
Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region.
The province of Guizhou serves as a prime example of
this new strategy. By integrating economic development with ecological
protection, the provincial government has focused on three key areas: poverty
alleviation, big data, and ecological protection. Guizhou has successfully
built national pilot zones for big data and ecological civilization, promoting
the growth of its top ten industries. By deeply integrating the digital economy
with the real economy, Guizhou has managed to achieve one of the highest economic
growth rates in China for nine consecutive years, demonstrating that a focus on
both economy and environment can be a successful model.[3]
On
November 8, 2013, the Uygur Autonomous Region was designated a pilot zone for
President Xi Jinping's new strategies on innovation and ecological progress.
This was marked by the official release of the Joint Declaration on Pioneering
in the Implementation of Innovation-Driven Development Strategies of National
High-Tech Zones in Wuhan. This initiative is spearheaded by the Urumqi
High-Tech Industrial Development Zone, which serves as the primary hub for
cultivating strategic emerging industries in Xinjiang. It has been recognized
as a national leader in several fields, including Promoting trade through
science and technology. Manufacturing PV power generation equipment. Modern
service industry industrialization. E-commerce. Intellectual property. Talent
management reform.
Green
Investment and Sustainable Development
On
August 13, 2013, the zone and the regional science and technology department
launched a joint project for strategic emerging industries. This partnership,
with an investment of 192.85 million yuan, has fueled the growth of key sectors
like information technology, bioengineering, new energy, and environmental
protection.
The
zone’s industrial model is now characterized by a "5+1" pattern, with
a focus on new energy, new materials, bioengineering, equipment manufacturing,
and decarbonization of electricity and chemicals. Innovation and Talent.
To
foster innovation, the Urumqi High-Tech Zone has created four professional
incubation platforms: The Business Incubation Center. Xinjiang National
University Science Park. Baihua Village Software Park. Central Asia Sci &
Tech Cooperation Park
The
zone plans to develop a cluster of incubators covering 300,000 square meters in
the coming years. By building a strategic alliance for the Central Asian
market, the zone is now exporting high-tech projects and enterprises to the
region and even opened an e-commerce platform for small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs) targeting the Central Asian market.
The zone's
talent development initiatives and preferential policies have made it a hub for
scientific and technical professionals in Xinjiang. It was the only national
demonstration base for innovative talent training designated by the Ministry of
Science and Technology. The zone has also established a robust investment and
financing system, attracting over 300 financial enterprises and more than 400
companies with a registered capital of 30 billion yuan by 2013.
Ecological
civilization construction
Xinjiang
is a key region for China's ecological civilization initiative, which aims to
balance economic development with environmental protection. In 2014, the
Xinjiang Environmental Protection Department identified 18 counties and cities
as the first group of ecological civilization pilot zones.
Out
of these 18 pilot zones, five counties—Zhaosu, Tekes, Gongliu, Habahe, and
Burqin—have already completed their ecological construction plans. In terms of
regional development, Xinjiang has built: 24 state-level ecological towns. 7
state-level ecological villages. 1 regional-level ecological region. 87
regional-level ecological towns. 405 regional-level ecological villages.
Additionally, the Karamay district and the Ili Kazakh autonomous prefecture
have been recognized as national-level ecological civilization pilot zones.
Demographic
and Economic Context
Xinjiang
is home to a diverse population of approximately 25,85 million people as of
2022. The largest ethnic groups in the region are the Uyghurs and the Han
Chinese. In 2020, Xinjiang's GDP was around 1.38 trillion yuan (or about $210
billion). The ecological civilization projects, like those in the pilot zones,
are intended to support continued economic growth while addressing
environmental challenges such as desertification and water scarcity.
2018-2020.
Demographic evolution
Between
2018 and 2020, the total population of Xinjiang's ethnic groups increased from
12.99 million to 15.6 million. Specifically, the Uyghur population grew from
10.17 million to 12.792 million during this same period. This contrasts with
the Han population in Xinjiang, which is around 9 million.
A
key factor often overlooked by analysts is that China's "one-child
policy" did not apply to ethnic minorities, allowing for more significant
proportional growth among these groups across the country from 1979 to 2016.
However, the largest driver of population growth for Xinjiang's ethnic
minorities was the country's extensive anti-poverty campaign, which helped
raise the average life expectancy in the region from 30 to 72.
China's
Anti-Poverty Campaign
China's
fight against poverty intensified after the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012.
By the end of 2020, the nation had successfully eliminated extreme poverty,
lifting 98.99 million people in rural areas above the poverty line. This effort
had a dramatic impact on multi-ethnic regions. From 2016 to 2020, in five
autonomous regions and three provinces with large multi-ethnic populations, the
number of poor people dropped by 15.6 million. These regions, which
historically had primitive or feudal social structures, were able to make a
"leapfrog" jump into the modern, ecological "New Era."
2020
GDP
In
the last 60 years, Xinjiang's GDP has grown by over 200 times, with per-capita
GDP increasing by nearly 40 times. This impressive economic expansion is driven
by the region's vast natural resources and key industries.
Economic
Drivers and Resources
Despite
its remote location, Xinjiang is rich in resources. The region holds a
significant portion of China's energy reserves: 30% of its oil, 34% of its
natural gas, and 40% of its coal. Because of this, energy-related industries
like petroleum extraction and petrochemicals are central to its economy.
Xinjiang also has more than 130 types of mineral resources, with the largest
reserves of beryllium and mica in China, making metallurgy another crucial
industry.
Agriculture
remains a vital part of the economy, accounting for 14% of the region's GDP in
2020. Xinjiang is famous for its agricultural products, including sugar beets
and fruits.
In
2020, Xinjiang's GDP grew by 3.4%, a rate that surpassed the overall national
average for China, fueled by its expanding industrial sector and strong
agricultural output in 2019, despite the challenges posed by the pandemic,
Xinjiang's high-tech manufacturing sector saw significant growth. Xinjiang's
agricultural output remained strong. Grain production was 15.8 million tons,
while cotton production increased by 3.2%, accounting for almost 90% of China's
total cotton production.
Afforestation
of the desert
In
northwest China, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is a major focus of
national efforts to combat desertification, which affects 43% of its landmass.
Through China's ecological civilization project, aimed at both environmental
restoration and poverty eradication, local officials and people of all ethnic
groups have undertaken large-scale afforestation efforts. These initiatives
have led to the gradual replacement of desert landscapes with green forests and
fruit tree plantations.
Karamay's
Transformation
The
city of Karamay is a notable success story in this campaign. Once in a harsh
environment plagued by drought, strong winds, and severe land degradation, it
has become an oasis with a 43% green coverage rate.
In
2001, the city launched a project to plant trees and reduce emissions. Further
initiatives, such as the "green project" and "desertification
control" programs in 2012, helped increase the city's green coverage from
33,000 mu in 2010 to 118,400 mu in 2019. To date, the green area has reached
148,000 mu, with 48 million trees planted.
This
effort has become a social imperative for residents. People plant trees to
symbolize major life events, such as marriage or friendship. Since 2016, a
local eco-agriculture company has provided newborns with a high-value tree
seed, encouraging children to grow up with their tree. These collective efforts
have created a "green shield" protecting the urban area from the
Junggar Basin.
The
results are significant: according to the fifth national desertification
monitoring, the rate of severe and extremely severe desertification in Karamay
has dropped to 12.6%, down from 100% when the city was first established.
Karamay’s journey from relying on camels and simple sewage treatment to
building canals and modern water diversion systems demonstrates its
decades-long commitment to achieving ecological civilization.
From
relying on simple methods like camels and cars to transport water and using
basic sewage treatment, the city of Karamay has spent decades exploring new
ways to achieve ecological civilization. Their efforts have evolved to include
large-scale projects like digging canals to divert water and planting millions
of trees.
The
"Green Wall" of Aksu
In
Aksu, a city on the edge of the Taklimakan Desert—China's largest and the
world's second-largest shifting sand desert—residents once endured over 100
days of sandstorms a year. In 1986, a "war against desertification"
began in the northeastern suburbs of Aksu with the Kekeya Green Project. Over
more than three decades, approximately 3.9 million volunteers have worked to
create a massive "green wall" of trees, spanning roughly 77.000
hectares.
Initially,
they could only plant hardy species like populus euphratica that could
survive in the sand. As the environment improved, they began introducing more
economically valuable trees, balancing environmental protection with economic
development. Since 2016, apple trees have been planted, and a single company
now provides seasonal jobs to about 40,000 locals each year, paying them 150
yuan a day. Additionally, 28 residents from impoverished households have been
hired as permanent staff, earning at least 2,500 yuan per month.
Makit
County's Fight for Survival
On
the southwestern edge of the Taklimakan Desert, Makit county is surrounded by
sand on three sides, with the desert making up 90% of its total area. The
county used to experience more than 150 windy and sandy days a year, with
sandstorms causing irreparable damage to crop like cotton. For Makit,
afforestation was not just an environmental issue but a matter of survival. In
2012, the county launched a project to plant one million mu of wind-proof and
sand-fixing ecological forests. Each spring and autumn planting season, between
20,000 and 30,000 of the county’s 300,000 residents volunteer for the effort.
After eight years of work, they have planted trees across an area of 370,000
mu. As a result, the number of sandy and dusty days has dropped to below 50
annually, and the average annual rainfall has increased from 53.6 mm in 2010 to
110 mm today. The project has not only improved the ecological environment but
also promoted regional economic development and helped reduce poverty. For
instance, over 700 forest rangers from impoverished households are now employed
at the ecological forest base.
Xinjiang. Environmental Tourism
The new desert roads and the international
airports. National Parks and Natural Reserves.
Xinjiang, like Tibet and other very remote autonomic regions, are now open touristic destinies, aligned
with the new paradigm of natural heritage, cultural heritage, material heritage
and immaterial heritage, representing the contribution of 47 nationalities.
Urumqui, the capital of Xinjiang, is home to a
large high-tech industrial development zone. Urumqi-based Goldwind Science &
Technology Co. Ltd., the world’s largest wind turbine manufacturer. It exports
to 17 countries. High-Speed Train Station in the Capital of Xinjiang, opened in
July 2016. The city hosted the 5th
annual China-Eurasia EXPO on the framework of the Silk Road Economic Belt Initiative also has a maritime component,
known as the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. Both projects stand to benefit nearly
half of the world’s population. Kashgar, modern and ancient, attracted more
than a million tourists in the first half of 2016 with its unique style,
fascinating ethnic cultures and cuisine.
2016
was the year of defeat of terrorism in Xinjiang. The Canadian magazine
Diplomat, nº 176 dedicated to Xinjiang one entire online page, and choose their
high lights: Cultural Heritage. Sustainable Economic Development. Modern and
Green Infrastructure. In the fall of 2014, Urumqi began a major greening
project to transform the landscape along its new main roads. The initiative
covered 600,000 square meters and included planting trees, creating green
separators up to eight meters wide, and building green road edges and
sidewalks. In some areas, these greenbelts will be over 120 meters wide, making
them some of the broadest in the city. The project's second stage began
simultaneously in 27 different sections, with excavators and cranes planting
large trees to turn the barren Gobi Desert into a lush, green landscape.
Xinjiang's
connectivity is rapidly expanding. Urumqi International Airport is the region's
main transportation hub, serving over 23 million travelers and offering
numerous international flights. In the last five years, the number of civil
airports in Xinjiang has grown to 22. The 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-25)
increase this number to 37. Construction is underway to reconstruct and extend
airports in Kashgar and Turpan, while new airports in Zhaosu, Tashikurgan, and
several other locations are also planned. New rail lines are also being built
in southern Xinjiang to improve regional communication. This modern
infrastructure, combined with advanced security systems, has opened up the
entire territory for visitors, allowing them to explore the preserved cultural
and natural heritage of all nationalities.
Cultural
and Natural Heritage
Xinjiang
is home to a rich collection of landmarks that reflect its diverse history and
geography:
- Glaciers: The 70 Glaciers in
Daxigou Valley, a scenic spot 120 kilometers south of Urumqi, are a
stunning example of the region's geological monuments.
- Mosques: The Shaanxi Grand
Mosque in Urumqi, built in 1906, and the Kucha Mosque, the second largest
in Xinjiang, showcase beautiful Uyghur architectural art.
- Ancient Ruins: The Turpan Oasis,
a vital ancient Silk Road trading post, is surrounded by desert and
mountains with ruined cities and Buddhist caves.
- Nature Reserves: The Altun
Mountain Nature Reserve, at an average elevation of 4,000 meters, is
China's largest and highest reserve, with a perfectly preserved primeval
environment. The Keketuohai National Geological Park was named UNESCO
World Geopark in 2017.
- Diverse Cultures: The Bortala
Mongol Autonomous Prefecture is home to people from 35 nationalities.
Known for its extensive grasslands and beautiful lakes, it was a
communication hub on the northern Silk Road.
- Fossils: The Siliconized Woods
on General Gobi in Qitai County contains thousands of tree fossils dating
back over a hundred million years.
In 2018,
Xinjiang's tourism sector experienced a significant boom, attracting over 150
million visitors—a growth of more than 40% from the previous year. This growth
rate continued into 2019. Domestic travelers made up 98% of these visitors,
while foreign tourists, estimated at around 6 million, primarily came from
Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia.
The
Diplomatic Conflict about Xinjiang
In
July 2019, a diplomatic split emerged at the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
over China's policies in Xinjiang.
·
The First Letter (22 signatories): On
July 8, a group of 22 nations, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and 19
European countries (Portugal did not sign), issued a joint letter to the UNHRC.
This letter condemned what it called the "mass detention" of Uyghurs
and other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Notably, no Muslim-majority countries
signed this letter, and the United States was not a signatory.
·
The Second Letter (50 signatories):
Just four days later, on July 12, a competing letter was sent to the UNHRC with
the support of 37 states, later growing to 50. This group, which included 23
Muslim-majority nations, defended China's policies. The letter argued that the
UNHRC's work should be objective and non-political. It praised China's
"remarkable achievements" in human rights through development and
urged other nations to avoid "unfounded charges" against China. The
letter points out that Muslim-majority nations, including Bahrain, Kuwait, and
Saudi Arabia (the USA allies), did not support the accusations against China.
Of the 50 signatories, 23 were Islamic-majority states that backed China's
policies. Turkey's President Erdogan, while not a signatory, publicly stated
that Xinjiang residents were living "happily" and that Turkey would
not let anyone disrupt its relations with China.
Pushed
by the Senate, the new Biden administration has radicalized its accusations
against China, escalating them to the absurd claim of genocide. These claims
lack consistent proof and disregard the findings of the UNHRC. The accusations
continue even after independent observers and reports have denied the existence
of genocide, and even though the U.S. and the European Union have not accepted
China's invitation to send officials to visit Xinjiang. In fact, the issue of
Xinjiang served as a pretext for the U.S. to push the European Parliament to
block the EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI). [4]
Traditional
U.S. allies in the Middle East, along with their own journalists and
representatives, had previously visited Xinjiang and had themselves experienced
similar types of terrorist aggression. This led them to view China's actions as
a legitimate response, and as a result, they did not support the accusations.
The sincerity of the 22 Western signatory nations' commitment to human rights
is also questionable.
I
will now quote from the Human Rights Watch Report, an American source,
regarding the U.S. conception of human rights.
In recent decades, the arrival of each new White House
resident has brought wild oscillations in US human rights policy. George W.
Bush’s ‘global war on terror, ´ with its systematic torture and Guantanamo
detentions without charge, was an earlier nadir. Barack Obama rejected
important parts of it, although he maintained and even expanded such elements
as unlawful drone attacks, intrusive surveillance, and arms sales to unsavory
autocrats… Trump was a disaster for human rights… fomented hatred against racial
and religious minorities…[5]
For
a crucial reason, that was systematized for Kenneth Roth Executive Director of
the unsuspected (?) Human Rights Watch: Traditionally, these (Human Rights) are
seen as only civil and political rights, such as freedom of expression, the
right to a fair trial, the right not to be tortured. But it ends there. (in the
U.S.).[6]
A New Model of Governance
to a new paradigm of
civilization
China's vision and
contributions to a new paradigm of civilization have been recognized
internationally, particularly in the realm of environmental governance.
Arthur Hanson of the
Asian Development Bank praised China's concept of Ecological Civilization,
describing it as a "coherent conceptual framework" for development
adjustments. He sees it as a catalyst for reform and a strategic opportunity to
build a new relationship between humanity and nature. This new model is
centered on a political perspective that prioritizes environmental management,
ecological restoration, and green development.[7]
Global Recognition of
Environmental Rights
The international
community is also catching up with these ideas. The Right to a Clean, Healthy
and Sustainable Environment is now considered a universal human right,
formalized through resolutions from the UN Human Rights Council (2021) and the
General Assembly (2022).
At the 15th Conference of
the Parties (COP15) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in December
2022, countries adopted the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
This framework aims to put nature on a path to recovery by 2030, with a vision
of living in harmony with nature by 2050. It includes four long-term goals and
23 action-oriented targets organized into three clusters: Reducing threats to
biodiversity. Meeting human needs through sustainable use. Providing tools and
solutions for implementation. The framework is supported by a monitoring system
that requires all member nations to use headline indicators to report on their
progress, promoting transparency and accountability. Older imperial and colonial nations have acknowledged their
responsibility for historical environmental damage and have committed to
financing the restoration of biotopes and ecosystems with a fund of $30
billion.
Currently, the Chinese
economy is transitioning from a phase of rapid development to a new phase of
high-quality development, with a key emphasis on sustainable economic growth
driven by innovation. Investment in infrastructure, especially in new forms, has
been the most effective means of emphasizing counter-cyclical adjustment in a
context of downward pressure.
In the short term, this
will stimulate investment and offset the economic slowdown. In the long term,
it will promote the transformation and modernization of traditional industries,
generate innovative industrial models, drive a new path accelerated by digital
technologies, maintain stable employment, and foster high-quality scientific
and environmental development. Examples include new and faster electric vehicle
charging stations, giant data centers, the industrial internet, 5G stations,
Artificial Intelligence, and high-speed and intercity trains…
UN Resolution
Recognizing Clean, Healthy, Sustainable Environment as Human Right.
28 JULY 2022
China's contribution was
crucial for the creation of this resolution, which recognizes that the impact
of climate change; the unsustainable management and use of natural resources;
the pollution of air, land, and water; the unsound management of chemicals and
waste; the resulting loss of biodiversity; and the decline in services provided
by ecosystems all interfere with the enjoyment of a clean, healthy, and
sustainable environment. Furthermore, the resolution highlights that
environmental damage has negative implications, both direct and indirect, for
the effective enjoyment of all human rights, and emphasizes that the
eradication of poverty is the fundamental pillar of sustainable development.
Conclusion. Chinese Environmental Philosophy
toward Ecocivilization
The core idea of this essay is to blend classical
Chinese philosophies—like Confucianism, Taoism, and Mohism—with modern
political thought, such as the San Min Doctrine, into the framework of
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.
This research aims to characterize the theoretical
contributions from the field of political philosophy of the CPC and the
socialist Chinese state regarding the overcoming of the environmental crisis in
China. The concept of ecological civilization became the guiding idea for the
economic and social development of the PRC. It is understood as a balanced
approach to development between urban and rural areas, humanity and nature, and
between different generations.
At a time when wars and economic crises are used as
a pretext for governments to neglect the ethical and political imperative of
fighting environmental crises, the PRC represents one of the world's most
promising hopes. As the United Nations Secretary-General has stated, fossil
fuel companies and the banks that finance them "have humanity by the
throat," reaping record profits amid rising energy prices. António
Guterres has also criticized governments that fail to curb fossil fuels and, in
many cases, seek to increase the production of gas, oil, and even coal—the
dirtiest fossil fuel—as well as the most dangerous nuclear energy. In this
context, the PRC shows that there is an alternative: a path of ecological,
democratic, and socialist innovation driven by peace and multilateral
cooperation.
Chinese environmental thought argues that the
Western model of industrial modernization has historically caused serious
conflicts with nature. Therefore, the ecological wisdom of traditional Chinese
civilization is a crucial part of the new "ecological civilization"
project. This environmental crisis has prompted the People's Republic of China
to launch a new wave of reforms, an "ecological socialism"
popularized by slogans like "Beautiful China" and the "Chinese
Dream," which aim to move the country toward a new era of Ecocivilization.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15) in
Kunming, Yunnan Province, serves as a global platform to showcase China's
vision of Ecocivilization. A recent resolution from the Third Plenary Session
of the Central Committee emphasized that China's modernization will be both
peaceful and ecologically sustainable. This is guided by the principle of
ecological socialism and its core ethic: "clear waters and green mountains
are inestimable treasures" (Xi Jinping).
The Chinese perspective on the shift from
ecological socialism to an ecological civilization can be summarized by a
four-part thesis:
- The
roots of Chinese philosophy lie in humanity's harmony with nature, of
which we are only a small part.
- Ecological
civilization is only possible within a socialist system.
- Ecological
civilization represents a new form of humanism that rejects the domination
of nature.
- It
marks a more advanced stage of human civilization that has moved beyond
the destructive industrial model.
Within this
framework, Ecological Civilization represents a new humanism that rejects the
domination of nature. By transcending industrial civilization, it will
represent a more advanced state of human civilization.
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[1] Quoted from Pan Yue, Evolution of an Ecological Civilization, in Beijing
Review, 27.10.2006.
[2] Quoted from Pan
Yue, Evolution of an Ecological Civilization, deputy director of China’s State Environmental
Protection Administration, debating his essay On Socialist Ecological
Civilization with Zhou Jigang, in Beijing Review, N.45, Nov.9, 2006.
[3] Outline of the National Innovation-Driven Development Strategy Issued
by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council.
file:///C:/Users/Utilizador/Downloads/t0076_innovation_driven_development_ strategy_EN.pdf
[4] On other hand: The rise of the extreme right in the Republican Party
is based on unsustainable propaganda that spreads three fallacies:
_ That
democratic and ecological social policies are to blame for all of America's
problems.
_ That
NAFTA agreements with Mexico and Canada are flawed.
_ That
Chinese, Europe…and all the other countries, unfair competition, is the main
reason for job and business losses.
[5] Biden’s Challenge: Redeeming a US Role for
Human Rights, by Kenner Roth in REPORT 2021 Our annual review of human rights
around the globe, HRW.
[6] Kenneth
Roth, Executive Director of HRW, about the 2021 REPORT. P..289
[7] Ecological Civilization in the People’s Republic of China: Values, Action, and Future Needs, 2019
[1] A short version of this text was presented at the International academic online conference on the Ukrainian Platform for Contemporary XVI INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE “CHINESE CIVILIZATION: TRADITIONS AND MODERNITY”, XVI Міжнародної наукової конференції "Китайська цивілізація: традиції та сучасність" Kiev, 30 November. Organizers: A. Krymskyi Institute of Oriental Studies (National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine); Ukrainian Association of Sinologists; Helvetica Publishing House (informational support).
[2] Скорочена версія цього тексту була представлена на Міжнародній академічній онлайн-конференції Української платформи для сучасності XVI МІЖНАРОДНА НАУКОВА КОНФЕРЕНЦІЯ «КИТАЙСЬКА ЦИВІЛІЗАЦІЯ: ТРАДИЦІЇ ТА СУЧАСНІСТЬ», XVI Міжнародна та сучасність» Київ, 30 листопада 2022 р. Організатори: Інститут сходознавства ім. А. Кримського НАН України; Українська асоціація китаєзнавців; Editora Helvetica (інформаційна підтримка).
[3] During the Second Sino-Japanese War, China suffered staggering losses. An estimated 35 million casualties were recorded, a number that includes both military personnel and civilians. Of these, approximately 17 million people died, making China a second country with one of the highest death tolls in the conflict. The scale experienced by China and the USSR (23 million) sharply contrasted with the 6 million associated with each of Germany, Poland, and the Jewish people, the 2,6 million of Japan, 1,5 million Jugoslav, 1 million Philippines, and was vastly different from the casualties of France, 580.000, United Kingdom 445.000 and the USA,340.000. Source: Militar Museum of France, Paris, Palais des Invalides,
[4] As Sun Yat-sen stated, "The Chinese people are great lovers of peace. In fact, our people are the only people in the world who are true peace-lovers. All other great nations are imperialist and warlike." San Min Chu I: The Three Principles of the People, page 71. China was a co-founder of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Cold War propaganda sought to undermine and distort the principles of the original UDHR. Fallacy was the collage of Cold War propaganda linking political human rights with the model of liberal democracy. See: Revisiting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and China's Role in Endorsing and Improving Its Principles and Articles. Book Understanding the Chinese Way to a New Era. Ecological Socialism and Ecocivilization, page 45…
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